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ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR
A NEW ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
Managing organizations (and especially people) is seen by managers as the first source of complexity in their job The forces occurring across the globe have changed not only the way we manage but organizations as processes and individual behaviors as well. Emerging issues that are challenging managers: o Geopolitics o Globalization o Technology o Workforce o Sustainability The concern about how to organize people takes us back to the dawn of civilization difference between is in ancient times that there was less concern for business management, while more attention was focused on large-scale endeavors of military, political, and religious organizations. The development of economic sciences and management practices begun around the beginning of the 17th century The Wealth of Nations (1776) Book 1, Chapter 1 [03] To take an example, therefore, from a very trifling manufacture; but one in which the division of labour has been very often taken notice of, the trade of the pin-maker; a workman not educated to this business (which the division of labour has rendered a distinct trade), nor acquainted with the use of the machinery employed in it (to the invention of which the same division of labour has probably given occasion), could scarce, perhaps, with his utmost industry, make one pin in a day, and certainly could not make twenty. But in the way in which this business is now carried on, not only the
whole work is a peculiar trade, but it is divided into a number of branches, of which the greater part are likewise peculiar trades. One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving, the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind where ten men only were employed, and where some of them consequently performed two or three distinct operations. But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There are in a pound upwards of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day; that is, certainly, not the two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not the four thousand eight hundredth part of what they are at present capable of performing, in consequence of a proper division and combination of their different operations. HUMAN RELATIONS (MAYO EXPERIMENT) Workers were responding in a way that they thought the experiments wanted and because they liked being the centre of attention Obviously, workers were responding not to the level of light, but to the experiment itself and to their environment in it Researchers concluded that how people were treated made an important difference in performance (Hawthorne effect). Other studies followed and demonstrated the importance of leadership practices and work-group pressures on employee satisfaction and performance They showed that the importance of economic incentives was overrated and stressed the importance of recognizing that employees react to a wide set of complex social forces, rather than to the technical factors alone ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY It is focused on what organizations are, how they are structured and how we can design them to operate effectively Organizational theorists look at organizational problems rather than at individual problems This broad perspective was reflected in the work of Weber, who developed a theory of bureaucracy Barnard developed the concept of the informal organization and added much of the thinking about organizations as social Simon and March integrated psychology, sociology, and economic theory, focusing on organizational decision-making.
HOW AND WHEN PERSONALITY OPERATES
Even though the environment affects behaviour, personality driven behaviour can show a good deal of consistency across different environments or situation. This is especially true for a board disposition, such as one’s need for social approval.(who has high needs for social approval seek it in almost all situations) It is also likely that personality will help to determine the kinds of situation that people may seek to be in(for instance, shy persons will avoid social situations) In some settings, however, personality attributes may be squelched (Sociality may be impossible to express in a hostile or threatening environment) 1 Personality is less powerful in strong situations (Structured situations where constraints such as clear and precise rules demand act to limit behaviour, working in an assembly linear participating in a military parade) In all of these cases, you want the person to perform the tasks as they are specified, otherwise the product will have flaws 2 the role of personality is much stronger in weak situations (situations that are loosely structured are perfect to understand behaviour in personality terms) If you want personality to operate more fully in a situation so that you might capitalize on personality differences, you may have to lose controls, expectations and permit more situational freedom. THE BASES OF PERSONALITY Personality has both a genetic and a learning component. Even though we all start from a specific genetic makeup, as we grow are exposed to socialization processes that influence our personality. Socialization is the process through which a person learns and acquire the values, attitudes, beliefs, and accepted behaviours of a culture, society, organization, or group. We learn that some behaviours are more rewarding while others lead to negative consequences. We learn group norms and values from our partners, as well as observing the behaviours of others. Over time these expectations shape the way we adapt to the world. The result is our personality, the unique set of values, attitudes, and behaviours that have been shaped around our genetic character. APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING PERSONALITY
- The “Big Five” Personality Dimensions
- Positive and Negative Affectivity
- Machiavellianism
- Locus of Control
- The Meyers- Briggs Dimensions
- Organizational Personality Orientation BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSION A trait is some particular relatively stable and enduring individual tendency to react emotionally in a specific way, These are the main five :
- Extroversion
- Emotional Stability (neuroticism)
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
- Openness to experience POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY Two general traits that have been related to how people are oriented toward their work
- Positive affectivity Similar to extroversion means that you have a strong, positive sense of your well-being; think of yourself as active
- Negative affectivity Similar to neuroticism. It means tha you are not very happ, feel to under stress and strain. MACHIAVELLIANISM High Machiavellians have high self-esteem, self. Confidence and behave in their own self-interest. They are seen as cool and calculating, attempt to make advantage of others, seek to form alliance with people in power to serve their own goals. They might lie, decive or compromise morality, believing that ends justify means. They detach themselves from the consequences of their actions,, and they use false or exaggerated praise to manipulate others LOCUS OF CONTROL People can be characterized according to their locus of control, whether they believe what happens to them is externally controlled or it is controlled internally by their own efforts. People who believe that others control important outcomes, have an external LoC (they react negatively to task that call for independent action) An Internal LoC reflects self- control over one’s outcomes, need for independence and a desire to participate in decisions (might experience frustration and respond with hostility or leave the organization) MYERS- BRIGGS PERSONALITY DIMENSION This approach classifies people according to the kinds of jobs and interactions they prefer, and the ways in which they approach problems
- Introversion vs Extroversion (I vs E)
- Sensing vs Intuition (S vs N)
- Thinking vs Feeling (T vs F)
PPT
MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE
Components of performance: Task Performance components are what people do to complete the work itself Contextual Performance components go beyond tasks, and are essential if organizations are to excel, because success depends on employees going beyond formal task performance requirements. As said before people have different abilities, and since performance is multidimensional, it follows that the person on the job must have ability for each different component; therefore, each activity requires different skills and a person can be good in some and poor in others. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY Technology refers to the methods, tools, facilities and equipment a person uses in performing a task. It helps to think of any specific task as being either skill-dominated and technology-dominated. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY MOTIVATION? Motivation in OB field has both a Psychological meaning internal mental state of a person that relates to the initiation, direction, persistence, intensity and termination of behaviour. Managerial meaningactivity of managers to include other to produce results desired by the organization. Motivations is “ the contemporary immediate influence on direction, vigor, and persistence of action”. “A process governing choice made by persons among alternative forms of voluntary activity”. CLASSES OF MOTIVATION THEORIES Any motivation theory attempts to account for reasons why people behave as they do and the process that causes behaviour. MARLOW’S THEORY
People act to satisfy their needs. A need is aroused when the person senses that there are some differences between the present condition and some desired stare. When the need is aroused, people feel some tension and act to reduce it. ERG THEORY Like Maslow, Alderfer states that unsatisfied needs will dominate behaviour and that once a need is satisfied, higher- order needs are desired, but in this case the needs are three rather than five. Existence Relatedness Growth If a person is deprived of a higher order need or does not have the potential to satisfy it, he or she will continue to focus on lower- order needs and regress on the need hierarchy The less relatedness needs are fulfilled, the more the existence needs will be desired. HERZBERG’S SATISFACTION THEORY It is a problem to translate need theory into managerial practice: a particular need may be satisfied in different ways for different people. Herzberg provided some guidance for managers in solving this problem. He challenged a long-held assumption about how a person's work satisfaction affected performance and motivation. Before it was assumed that if a person was dissatisfied with part of the job (pay) all that had to be done was to improve the factor (increase pay). This would lead to higher satisfaction, greater motivation, and higher performance. Herzberg concluded that there are two sets of factors that affect people in the workplace, each of which worked in different ways. Hygiene factorscreate dissatisfaction if they are not present. If they are present, dissatisfaction will be lower, but satisfaction will not be high. Hygiene factors are associated with the context of the job. Motivation factorscreate high satisfaction and willingness to work harder. When some motivators are present, they result in more effort, but if they are absent, it will produce dissatisfaction in most people (motivators are associated with the context of the job) JOB CHARACTERISTIC MODEL Herzberg’s work directed attention to the role of work itself as a factor that affects worker motivation and performance. when specific job characteristic are present employees will experience a positive, self-generated response when they perform well and that this internal kick will provide an incentive for continued efforts toward good performance.
4 Growth need strength determines how these job characteristics affect the person It is the extent to which a person desires to advance, to be in a challenging position, and, generally, to achieve. If you have high growth need strength and have a job high on the core dimensions, you are more likely to experience high internal motivation, high satisfaction, high work quality, and low turnover and absenteeism than if you have low growth need strength. MCCELELLAND’S THEORY There are three needs: Achievement Extent to which success is important ad valued by a person. If you have a high achievement motive you want to succeed in everything. (Successful entrepreneurs have high achievement motives: they know that if they win or lose, they are responsible accountable and in charge) Power The need to have an impact on others, to establish, maintain, or restore personal prestige or power.It may take two forms: Those with a personalized power orientation prefer person-to-person competition in which they can dominate. To them, life is a win-lose game and the law of the jungle cues. A person with a high socialized power orientation exercise power for the good of others, is careful about the use of personal power, plan carefully for conflict with others, and know that often someone’s win is another person’s loss Affiliation These are learned needs, arranged in hierarchy of strength and importance within a person and emerge as the personality develops. The idea is that, for a particular person, one of these motives is more dominant or have the highest position in his or hr hierarchy, and that motive will have the strongest effect on behaviour. GOAL SETTING 1 General positive relationship between goal difficulty and performance 2 specific goals lead to higher performance than general goals. 3 Participation in setting goals is related to performance through goal acceptance and commitment, and information-sharing (participation increases goal commitment) 4Feedback about performance with respect to goals is necessary. REINFORCMENT THEORY It helps managers to understand how rewarding or punishing behaviour affects performance and satisfaction.
Types of consequences
- Positive reinforcement occurs when desirable consequences are associated with a behaviour. A positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the behaviour will recur in the future.
- Negative reinforcement occurs when an undesirable consequence is removed. It also increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.
- Punishment can take two forms: negative consequences can be applied to a response, positive consequences can actively be taken away
- Extinction involves stopping a previously established reinforcer, either positive or negative, that is maintaining a behaviour. Reinforcement Scheduled
- In a continuous reinforcement schedule, a response is reinforces (or punished) each time it occurs
- In a fixed reinforcement schedule, a response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has elapsed
- In a variable-interval reinforcement schedule, the period of time between reinforcements is not constant
- In a fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule, a certain number of responses must occur before a reinforcement follows
- In a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, the number of behaviours necessarily for a reinforcement varies.
- Interactional justice: weather the decision and the decision-making process are fully explained to you and weather you’re treated with respect and dignity during the decision-making process. EQUITY THEORY People are motivated to maintain fair relationships with others and to rectify unfair relationships by making them fair. A premise is that individuals compare themselves to others and want their efforts and achievements to be judged fairly relatively to them. The concern is outcome justice: how you perceive organizational outcomes relative to the contributions you and others make to gain them. Key factors used in explaining and understanding motivation: Inputs: what you bring to the job (experience, skill…) Anything that you believe is relevant to the job and should be recognised by others. Outcomes: things that you perceive to be received as a result of work. Referents: the focus of comparison for the people, either other people or other department. Equity occurs when your ratio of outcomes to inputs is equal to the ratio of the referent Underpayment inequity occurs when you believe that your inputs are at least equal to Paula’s but your outcomes are less than hers. This underpayment result in dissatisfaction that stems from anger at being under-rewarded and is likely to lead to lower performance. When inequity is perceived, a person is likely to take some action to restore equity, and thus to bring some ratios into balance Ways of achieving an equitable balance: - Change the inputs by lowering commitment, working fewer hours, … - Change outcomes by trying to get a pay rise, to increase power, … - Rationalize the inputs and the outputs and psychological distortion by changing the attributions to them - Leave the situation: you may decide to move to another job - Act against the other person: you may try to convince Paula to work harder, thus increasing her inputs; … - Change the referent, if you can find another person in the firm who seems to have a similar ration of outcomes to inputs, as you
