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PROGRAMMA DI INGLESE
THE ROMANTIC AGE
The Romantic Spirit
Romanticism was an artistic and literary movement that spread across Europe and the U.S. from the late 1700s. It developed as a reaction against strict rules and traditional forms. Romanticism supported democratic ideas such as equality and freedom. They believed emotion, imagination and personal experience were important. Nature was a central theme. Romantic poets are divided into two generations. The First Generation: William Blake, Wordsworth, and Coleridge -> wanted to making poetry simpler, more emotional, and closer to everyday language. The Second Generation: Byron, Shelley, and John Keats -> created the model of the Romantic hero: emotional, lonely, and often tragic. Romantic prose focused on personal expression, making essays, letters, and autobiographies. Romantic novels included different types: Novels of manners: Jane Austen described upper- class social behavior, using irony. Gothic novels: Stories full of mystery, terror, and supernatural elements. Historical novels: with real historical events. In the Romantic Age, important is the sublime is the feeling you get when nature is very big and powerful. It can make you feel amazed but also a little scared.
William Blake (1757–1827 London)
William Blake opposed all forms of oppression: political, religious, and social. He saw revolution as a positive and purifying force. A central theme in his poetry is the child, which represents innocence and social injustice: in Songs of Innocence (1789) → purity and joy in Songs of Experience (1794)→ suffering and injustice He believed that innocence and experience are both part of human life. Blake also explored the idea of opposites. He created a special technique called illuminated printing : he engraved the text on copper plates and then coloured words and images by hand, creating a strong connection between poetry and art. His language is simple, but his symbols are complex and visionary.
- The Lamb — William Blake The Lamb is a poem from Songs of Innocence, the collection in which Blake explores the pure state of childhood. The poem is composed by 2 stanzas by 10 lines. Blake uses the lamb as a symbol of innocence and divine love. The lamb also represents Jesus Christ, often called “the Lamb of God,” which adds a religious dimension.
- The Tyger — William Blake The Tyger, from the Songs Of Experience explores experience, fear, and the darker side of creation. The poet-speaker asks how the same God who made the gentle lamb could also create such a powerful and terrifying creature. The tiger is associated with burning fire, a blacksmith’s forge. The question remains unanswered.
William Wordsworth (1770–1850)
William Wordsworth was born in the Lake District and was inspired by its landscapes. He was enthusiastic about the French Revolution at first, but later became disillusioned. With Coleridge, he wrote Lyrical Ballads and its Preface, which became the manifesto of Romantic poetry. Wordsworth’s main themes were: Nature: as a source of moral and spiritual growth. Childhood: a pure state closely connected to nature. Memory and Imagination: because memory recalls childhood joy, and imagination transforms it into poetry. The Poetic Language is simple, direct, and based on everyday speech.
- My heart leaps up when I behold — William Wordsworth This short lyric by Wordsworth expresses the poet’s joy whenever he sees a rainbow. The central idea is that the emotions we feel in childhood shape the person we become as adults. The poem celebrates nature as a source of constant happiness. Wordsworth says that if he ever stops feeling joy in nature, he would prefer not to live.
- I wandered lonely as a cloud — William Wordsworth This poem describes a moment when Wordsworth sees a field of daffodils with his sister. At the beginning, he feels lonely, but the sight of the daffodils fills him with joy. The flowers seem alive, almost like a crowd celebrating life. A central theme is the power of memory. Nature here acts as a healing, that fills the human heart with peace.
- Upon Westminster Bridge — William Wordsworth This sonnet was inspired by a moment when Wordsworth saw London early in the morning from Westminster Bridge. He describes the city as calm, beautiful, and almost natural, very different from the noisy city it normally was during the Industrial Revolution. In the early light the whole city seems to be sleeping. The main theme is unexpected beauty, showing that even an industrial city can appear sublime.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834)
Samuel Taylor Coleridge focused on the supernatural and on visionary poetry, exploring dreams and the subconscious. He tried to make supernatural events seem real. A central idea in his work is imagination. He distinguished three faculties of the human mind: Fancy → mechanical memory, not creative Primary Imagination → natural and unconscious perception Secondary Imagination → creative power of the poet His style is musical, with sound effects, and rich in symbols. His most famous poem is “ The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” , a romantic ballad. It is about an old sailor who stops a man on his way to a wedding and tells him his story. The sailor says his ship goes into cold, icy seas. They see an albatross, a bird that is a good sign. But the sailor kills it for no reason. After this, a curse starts: the wind stops, the ship cannot move, and the crew suffers and dies. The sailor is left alone on the ship and feels very guilty. Later he learns to respect all living things. The curse starts to end. In the end, he is saved, but he must travel and tell his story to warn other people.
imagine of death.
THE VICTORIAN AGE
Queen Victoria’s reign
The reign of Queen Victoria lasted from 1837 to 1901. It was an important time for Britain, with economic growth but also many social problems. Cities like London, Manchester and Liverpool grew very fast. Many people moved from the countryside to cities to find work, but life was poor and unhealthy. Transport improved a lot thanks to the railway system, which made travel faster and cheaper. The Great Exhibition of 1851 showed Britain’s success in science and industry. However, many workers were still very poor. They worked very long hours (14–16 hours a day), child labour was common, and houses were dirty. Women were expected to stay at home, but slowly things changed. Women gained more rights, could ask for divorce and worked more as teachers. Poor children had very hard lives: they worked in factories and mines for 12–18 hours a day and often got sick or died young. Charles Darwin introduced the theory of evolution, which changed how people understood nature and life but this theory was criticised by the Church.
The Voices of the Victorians
In the Victorian Age more people learned to read. Books were expensive, so poor people could not buy them. Writers like Charles Dickens published novels in newspapers. Later the books were cheaper and more people could read them. Reading helped people understand society and its problems. The Age of the Novel The novel was the most important literary genre of the Victorian Age. Society was changing a lot, so novels talked about real life. There were different types of novels: realistic and fantastic. Novels criticised society but also helped people escape from a hard life. The Social Novel Social novels talked about poverty, child labour and injustice. Writers wanted to show the bad living conditions of poor people. The most important writer was Charles Dickens. In Oliver Twist he described poor and exploited children. The Fantastic Novel Fantastic novels were very popular. They came from the Gothic tradition. Famous works are Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, The Picture of Dorian Gray and Dracula. In these novels, evil is inside the person. They show the conflict between good and evil. Gender and the Novel Women were expected to stay at home. Many women writers used male names, like the Brontë sisters. In their novels they talked about women’s desire for freedom and independence. The Imperialist Novel Rudyard Kipling wrote novels about the British Empire. He believed that Britain had the duty to bring civilisation to other countries. His most famous works are Kim and The Jungle Books. The Aesthetic Movement The Aesthetic Movement believed in art for beauty. Oscar Wilde was the main writer with his work “The Picture Of Dorian Gray. He believed that life should be lived for pleasure and beauty.
work “The Picture Of Dorian Gray. He believed that life should be lived for pleasure and beauty. “Art for art’s save” -> art only exists for its beauty which has to be admired.
Workhouses
Before 1834, poor people were helped by local parishes. They got food and support in their homes. But many people moved to cities to find work, and parishes could not help everyone anymore. The Poor Law of 1834 created workhouses. These were special buildings where poor people could live and work. Life in workhouses was very strict. People were divided into groups: old and sick people, workers, and children. Men and women were separated. People had to wear uniforms and could not leave easily. Because of this, workhouses were a last choice for poor people. Workhouses were closed in 1929, and many became hospitals.
Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens had a difficult childhood because his family had money problems. When his father was sent to prison for debt, Dickens had to leave school and work in a factory. These experiences influenced his writing. Dickens’ novels show good winning over evil and have a moral message, like honesty, kindness. He criticised Victorian society, especially poverty, child exploitation, and hypocrisy. Physical descriptions reflect characters personality. “Oliver Twist” (1838) Oliver Twist is an orphan who grows up in a workhouse. When he asks for more food, he is punished and sent away. He works for an undertaker, but after being mistreated, he runs away to London. In London, he meets Fagin, who leads a gang. Oliver is rescued by Mr Brownlow, a honest man. After many adventures, Oliver discovers his true origins and is adopted by Mr Brownlow, finally finding love and security. Characters: Oliver Twist: symbol of innocence. Fagin: symbol of evil, exploits children. Mr Brownlow: symbol of true respectability, Oliver’s guide. The novel criticises: Child exploitation and Poverty and crime. The novel is told by an omniscient narrator, with suspense, dramatic scenes. “Hard Times” (1854) Hard Times is set in Coketown, an industrial city. The main character is Thomas Gradgrind. He believes only in facts and no imagination. He educates his children in this way. His daughter Louisa marries a rich factory owner, but the marriage is unhappy. At the end, Gradgrind understands that he was wrong and feelings and imagination are important. The novel criticises: Materialism and an education system based only on facts, numbers. “Please, Sir, I Want Some More” – Oliver Twist This scene is about Oliver, a poor orphan who lives in a workhouse. The children are always hungry because they receive very little food. One day Oliver and other children drawing lots and the task falls upon Oliver that going to ask for more food, saying: “Please, sir, I want some more.” This simple request shocks the adults. They see it as an act of rebellion. As a result, Oliver is
Charlotte Brontë:
Her works focus on women’s condition and the obstacles they have to face in life, love, and social limits. Charlotte Bronte drew inspiration from her own life and experience. The style are elaborate and complex and uses gothic elements. “Jane Eyre” (1847): Jane Eyre tells the story of Jane, an orphan girl who lives with her cruel aunt Mrs Reed. After being punished unfairly and locked in a room, she is sent to a boarding school. When she grows up, Jane becomes a governess. She works for Mr Rochester and teaches his daughter. Jane and Rochester fall in love, but she discovers a secret in the house. Before the wedding, Jane learns that Rochester already has a wife, who is locked in the house. Jane leaves him. In the end, she returns to him and start a new life. Themes The novel is a coming-of-age story: Jane grows from a child into an independent woman. Main themes: love, independence and moral values Jane is strong, intelligent, and independent. Bertha Mason is the opposite of Jane: she is wild and insane. Mr Rochester is passionate and complex. “The Woman in the Attic” – Jane Eyre This passage reveals the secret of Mr. Rochester: his wife, Bertha Mason, is locked in the attic because she is mentally ill. The room where Bertha is kept is permeated by a gothic atmosphere. Bertha is described as creepy, wild and animal, her eyes as a red balls like those of demon. She represents repressed emotions.
Rudyard Kipling:
Rudyard Kipling was a famous writer connected to the British Empire. He believed in imperialism. His stories often teach values like: responsibility and courage. His style is clear and vivid. “The White Man’s Burden” (1899): This poem (1899) supports imperialism. Kipling invites the United States to take control of colonies and “civilise” them. Today, the poem is controversial because it justifies racism and exploitation. “The White Man’s Burden” – The White Man’s Burden This poem invites Western nations to “civilize” non-European peoples. Kipling presents imperialism as a moral duty. Colonized people are described as inferior and unable to govern themselves.
Oscar Wilde:
Wilde was part of aesthetic movement. A main theme in his work is the conflict between: beauty and morality. “The Picture of Dorian Gray” The Picture of Dorian Gray tells the story of Dorian Gray, a very beautiful young man. A painter
makes his portrait. Dorian wishes to stay young forever while the portrait becomes old instead of him. His wish comes true. The portrait becomes ugly and shows his corruption. In the end, he tries to destroy the painting, but he dies. The portrait returns to beauty, while his real body becomes old and destroyed.
THE EDWARDIAN AGE
After the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, her son became Edward VII and succeeded the throne. Edward VII helped Britain in foreign politics. In 1904 Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale, an agreement that solved colonial problems between the two countries. The Edwardian period was a time of change. In 1903 The Women’s Social and Political Union was created by Emmeline + Christabel Pankhurst to fight for women’s right to vote. These women were called Suffragettes. In 1906 the Labour Party was founded. The Liberals started the reforms of the Welfare State, the Parliament approved: old-age pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, national insurance. Despite reforms, there were many protests because wages were low and prices high. In 1909 David Lloyd George introduced the People’s Budget, with higher taxes for rich people to pay for social reforms. The House of Lords refused it, causing a constitutional crisis. Edward VII died in 1910 and his son George V became king.
Joseph Conrad:
His works explore: conflict between ideals and reality, the darkness of human nature and the complexity of society. His style is innovative, with multiple narrators and non-linear time. “Heart of Darkness” (1899): The story is told by Marlow, an English sailor. He travels to Africa on the Congo River. He must find Kurtz, a company agent. During the journey, Marlow hears many stories about Kurtz and becomes curious. He also sees the reality of colonialism. He understands that: Africans are human, not “savages” Europeans are often cruel Marlow finally meets Kurtz, who is dying. After Kurtz dies, Marlow returns to Europe. He meets Kurtz’s fiancée and lies, saying Kurtz’s last word was her name. But Kurtz’s real last words are: “The horror! The horror!” The book criticises colonialism and the idea of European superiority. There are two narrators: an unknown narrator and Marlow, who tells his story “The Grove of Death” – Heart of Darkness After arriving at the first station, Marlow takes a walk in the forest. He hears a strange sound and discovers a place where enslaved Black workers are left to die. They are so weak and thin that they look like shadows. Marlow is shocked and horrified by what he sees. He then returns to the station, where he meets the Chief Accountant, a white man who appears clean and elegant
● (^) political instability.
The Roaring Twenties
The 1920s were years of economic growth and cultural change, especially in the USA. There were: mass production, automobiles, radio, cinema, jazz music. Young women called Flappers represented freedom and modern life. They smoked, danced, drank alcohol and wore modern clothes. The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was characterised by a general feeling of novelty, modernity and break with tradition. In 1920 alcohol became illegal in the USA because of Prohibition. It lasted 13 years. The period ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which caused the Great Depression. The American Dream The American Dream was the belief that everyone could become successful through: hard work, sacrifice and talent. In the 1920s the dream became more connected to money and consumerism.
The Thirties (1929-1939)
The Wall Street Crash caused a world economic crisis called the Great Depression. Main consequences were unemployment, poverty and protests. In the late 1930s some industries grew again because Britain was preparing for war. Families became smaller and fewer people lived in the centres of towns. New housings were built outside towns. In 1936 Edward VIII wanted to marry Wallis Simpson, a divorced American woman. Because politicians opposed the marriage, he abdicated. His brother became George VI. In the same year economic crisis helped the rise of dictatorships in: Italy, Germany and Spain where Francisco Franco won the Civil War with help from Mussolini and Hitler in 1966.
World War II (1939-1945)
In 1939 Germany invaded Poland, so Britain and France declared war. Germany conquered many countries, including France. Germany could not defeat Britain from the air. Then Hitler invaded the Soviet Union with Operation Barbarossa, but the Russian winter and Soviet resistance destroyed the German army. The USA entered the war in 1941 after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. The war started to ended with the Allied troops landed in Normandy and liberated France. In 1945 Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered. In August 1945 President Harry S. Truman ordered atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrendered and the war ended. The Holocaust The Holocaust (Shoah) was the genocide of about six million Jews and other people like homosexuals and gypsies by Nazi Germany. Many people died in concentration camps because of: starvation, disease, shootings, gas chambers. 27 January is Holocaust Remembrance Day.
The war poetry
War poetry is poetry about war and the experiences of soldiers. Many war poems were written during World War I. These poems describe the reality of war: violence, suffering, fear, and death. The most famous war poets are Wilfred Owen and Rupert Brooke. Main themes: War and death Suffering of soldiers Fear and sadness Patriotism and sacrifice War poetry shows that war is not glorious, but painful and tragic.
Rupert Brooke (1887–1915)
Rupert Brooke was a war poet. His poems show: patriotism, idealised view of war and sacrifice for the country. “ The Soldier” The Soldier is a poem by Rupert Brooke about love for England and patriotism. The poet says that if a soldier dies in another country, that place will always be linked to England because he is buried there. He sees England as a loving mother. In the second part, death in war is presented as something good and honourable. The poem shows war in a positive way, as a noble sacrifice for the country.
Wilfred Owen:
Owen was part of the war poets group. They wanted to show the real truth of war, not the heroic image from propaganda. They show war as: violent, sad, useless. His poetry focuses on: the horror of war, death and suffering. He wrote from personal experience, so his poems are very real and emotional. His style is powerful. He uses: repetition and sound effects, strong and emotional language “Dulce et Decorum Est” Dulce et Decorum Est shows soldiers in the trenches during a gas attack. They are tired, injured. Suddenly gas attacks them, and one soldier dies in a very painful way because he cannot put on his mask in time. At the end, Owen says that if people saw this reality, they would not believe that war is glorious.
The Modernist Revolution
At the beginning of the 20th century, writers rejected old Victorian ideas. The world seemed more confusing so they tried to find new ways to understand reality. In the 20th century, psychology became very important. Sigmund Freud said that human behaviour is controlled by the unconscious mind. He compared the mind to an iceberg: most of it is hidden. He also said dreams help us understand the mind. Because of this, writers became more interested in thoughts and feelings. Modernism is a way of writing in the early 20th century. Writers try to: explore the human mind
person narration, interior monologue and flashbacks. “Clarissa and Septimus” Clarissa is preparing her party in London. At the same time, Septimus, a young war veteran, suffers from mental illness caused by World War I. He feels isolated. He cannot live with his trauma and commits suicide by jumping from a window. “Clarissa’s reflection on Septimus’ death” During her party, Clarissa hears about Septimus’ suicide. At first she is shocked, but then she starts to think deeply about it. She feels that Septimus’ death is a way to express extreme pain and the impossibility of communication in life.
POST WAR CULTURE
Britain After World War II (1945-1960)
After the war the Labour Party won the elections and Clement Attlee became Prime Minister. The government created the Welfare State, including: free healthcare, pensions, unemployment benefits and social security. The National Health Service was founded in 1946. Britain rebuilt destroyed towns and built new housing. During the 1950s living standards improved: more families bought cars, televisions and telephones. Decline of the British Empire After the war Britain lost international power. Important events: India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, immigrants from the Africa and Asia arrived in Britain, the Suez Crisis of 1956 showed Britain depended on the USA. The Cold War After WWII there was tension between: the USA and the Soviet Union. This period was called the Cold War. People feared nuclear war and many protested against nuclear weapons.
George Orwell (1903-1950)
George Orwell worked in different jobs and had experiences with poverty, journalism, and war. These experiences strongly influenced his writing. Orwell wrote about: poverty, social injustice, politics and power and danger of dictatorships and totalitarian governments. He believed writers should be clear and honest, and he used simple, direct language. “Nineteen Eighty-Four” (1949) Nineteen Eighty-Four is a dystopian novel set in a future world divided into three super-states: Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia. The story takes place in London, controlled by a totalitarian regime led by Big Brother. The government has total control over people’s lives. The protagonist, Winston Smith, tries to resist the system. He secretly writes a diary and starts a forbidden relationship with Julia. Winston and Julia are later betrayed by O’Brien, a Party member they trusted. They are arrested and taken to the Ministry of Love, where Winston is tortured and forced to confess. In Room 101, Winston faces his worst fear (rats) and finally breaks completely. In the end, he
loses his identity and learns to love Big Brother. Main themes total control of the state propaganda manipulation loss of freedom and individuality Orwell uses a simple, direct style. This makes the dystopian world more realistic. “Down with Big Brother” In this passage Winston is at home thinking about a moment during the “Two Minutes Hate” at the Ministry of Truth. He remembers an eye contact with O’Brien, which makes him think that rebellion against Big Brother might be possible. While thinking, Winston begins to write in his diary. Without realizing it, he repeatedly writes “DOWN WITH BIG BROTHER” in large letters. At first he feels scared, but then he understands that it makes no difference whether he writes it or not. The Thought Police will eventually catch him anyway, because even thinking against the Party is a crime. “Animal farm” (1945) Animal Farm is a book that symbolically describes the Russian Revolution. The story takes place at Manor Farm, where Old Major, a pig, talks about freedom and encourages the animals to rebel against Mr Jones, the farmer. After Old Major dies, the pigs Napoleon and Snowball lead the rebellion and drive Jones away, renaming the farm Animal Farm and creating the Seven Commandments. At first all animals are equal, but soon the pigs take control. Life becomes worse, the commandments are changed. In the end, the pigs become like humans and cannot be distinguished from them. The book criticizes dictatorship and represents the Russian Revolution: Old Major is Lenin/Marx, Snowball is Trotsky, and Napoleon is Stalin. The main themes are: power and corruption, inequality and social classes and propaganda and manipulation. “All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others” In the first chapter of Animal Farm , Old Major, a pig, talks to all the animals. He says their life is hard because humans use and control them. Animals work a lot but get little food, and when they are old or weak they are killed. He says the real problem is not nature, but humans, who take everything animals produce. Old Major says humans are the enemy. If there are no humans, animals will be free and happier. He also gives rules: animals must be friends with each other, enemies of humans. He finishes by saying all animals are equal.
AMERICAN VOICES
Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940)
Francis Scott Fitzgerald was one of the most important American writers of the Jazz Age. Fitzgerald is known for writing about the American Dream and its dark side. His writing style mixes realism and symbolism. It is very musical and descriptive. He often shows two points of view: being inside the story and also judging it from outside. Main ideas in his works: The American Dream and its failure Love and illusion
