The British empire and the Commonwealth
Queen Victoria (1837/1901) came to the throne during a difficult political period, with relations with
Ireland deteriorating during her reign, mainly due to recurring famines, such as the potato calamity
of 1845. As the Irish economy and diet depended mainly on potatoes, the failure of the harvest
forced many Irish people to emigrate to the United States or England to escape starvation. During
this period, the Irish independence movement began, led by Charles S. Parnell, who called for
self-government (Home Rule) for Ireland. Although he persuaded Prime Minister Gladstone to
introduce the Home Rule Bill in 1886, it was rejected twice by Parliament."
During the reign of Queen Victoria, the British Empire expanded considerably due to two
processes: the need to consolidate foreign markets and an overpopulation at home. Australia and
New Zealand became important centres for cattle breeding, while many people moved to Canada,
already home to a French population. Britain also took direct control of India, unifying it under one
power. Among the colonies, India was considered ‘the pearl of the Empire’ for its wealth and
exoticism. In Africa, the British settled in Uganda, Kenya, Rhodesia and the Niger lands, and
acquired a majority stake in the Suez Canal. In South Africa, the relationship with the Boers
(descendants of Dutch settlers) was contentious and led to the Boer War, won by Britain. Empire
was not only a military and commercial affair, but also a moral duty, as underlined by Rudyard
Kipling's famous expression, ‘the white man's burden’."
The Empire was of paramount importance to Britain, with over a third of British industrial exports
going to it by 1914. Victoria's Diamond and Gold Jubilees (1887 and 1897) celebrated Britain's
commercial and financial greatness. By the end of the 19th century, about a third of the world's
financial and commercial transactions took place in Britain. However, two powerful rivals were
emerging: Germany, under the leadership of Bismarck, was challenging British naval and industrial
supremacy, especially after its victory over France in 1870-71, and the United States, which,
having recovered from the Civil War, was now almost equal to Britain in terms of industrial
production, with the expansion of the railway network lowering prices and increasing output."
In the 19th century, some British colonies began to gain a degree of self-government. Between
1840 and 1872, countries like Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape Colony (South
Africa) achieved “dominion status.” This meant they had control over their internal affairs, but
Britain still managed their foreign policy and defense. These colonies remained part of the British
Empire and recognized Queen Victoria as their Head of State, forming what was known as the
British Commonwealth of Nations. After World War II and the decline of the British Empire, this
group evolved into the modern Commonwealth of Nations in 1949. Many of the original members
were former colonies, like India, which became a republic in 1949 but chose to stay in the
Commonwealth. Over time, other countries from Africa, Asia, the Pacific, the Americas, and
Europe have also joined the Commonwealth."
The Commonwealth is an organisation of 54 independent countries that are equal members,
working together to promote peace, freedom, and progress, as outlined in the 1949 London
Declaration. It represents about 2.4 billion people from both large and small nations, rich and
poor, across five regions. Many of its members are small island nations, such as Mauritius, the
Seychelles, and Fiji. While these countries remain republics, they still recognise King Charles III as
the Head of the Commonwealth. Every two years, member countries meet to address common
issues, mostly related to trade and culture. A key event for the Commonwealth is the
Commonwealth Games, a multi-sport competition held every four years, where all members
participate. The UK sends separate teams for England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland."
An age of industry and reforms
Britain’s political and economic situation was unstable in the 19th century. Although the Reform
Bill of 1832 allowed the middle class some voting rights, the working class continued to live in
poor conditions. Workers frequently held meetings and protests, and revolution seemed likely, as
seen in the rest of Europe in 1848. The Chartists, a large organised workers’ movement, created
the People’s Charter in 1838, demanding voting rights for the working class. However, it wasn’t
until 1867 that a second Reform Bill extended voting rights to urban workers, although miners and
agricultural workers were still excluded. A third Reform Bill in 1884 finally granted voting rights to
all male workers."
