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Sommario
QUESTION 1 - Can you give some examples of phonemes,
- sentences?........................................................................................................................................................ QUESTION 1 - Can you give some examples of phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and
- QUESTION 2 - What is the difference between types and tokens?...................................................................
- QUESTION 3- What are lexemes?.....................................................................................................................
- QUESTION 4 - What is the difference between open and closed classes?........................................................
- QUESTION 5 - Please provide some examples of lexical, functional, and insert words....................................
- •QUESTION 6 - What are derivation, inflexion, and compounding?................................................................
- •QUESTION 7-What is the difference between denotation and connotation? Provide an example................
- QUESTION 8- What are some patterns that are used in ads at the macro-level? (structure of an ad).............
- QUESTION 9- How can nouns, pronouns, verb tenses or aspect be used as strategies in a text?....................
- •QUESTION 10- Explain the differences between deontic, epistemic, and dynamic modality.........................
- Antonyms....................................................................................................................................................... •QUESTION 11- Provide examples of Lexical cohesion strategies: Repetition, synonyms, superordinates
- QUESTION 12- provide some examples of collocations..................................................................................
- •QUESTION 13- What is endophoric and exophoric reference?....................................................................
- •QUESTION 14- Provide examples of anaphoric and cataphoric reference...................................................
- •QUESTION 15- What types of deixis do you know of?..................................................................................
- •QUESTION 16- What are the characteristics of informative texts?...............................................................
- •QUESTION 17- What are the characteristics of persuasive texts?................................................................
- •QUESTION 18- What are the characteristics of instructive texts?................................................................
- •QUESTION 19- What are the characteristics of descriptive texts?................................................................
- •QUESTION 20 - Different types of speech acts..............................................................................................
- •QUESTION 21- Labov’s narrative categories.................................................................................................
- •QUESTION 22- Cooperative principles: quantity, quality, relevance, manner..............................................
- •QUESTION 23- Difference between flouting and violating a maxim- with examples!...................................
- •QUESTION 24 - Genderised talk: Tannen and your personal opinion...........................................................
PHONEME
A phoneme is the written representation of a sound. Phonemes are studied and descripted by PHONOLOGY. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in words such as cat, kit, scat, skit as occlusive consonant and æ for words such as cat, plaid, laugh as vowel. Those sounds are represented in IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet). MORPHEME A morpheme is the smallest grammatical meaningful units of a language (stems and affixes- prefixes and suffixes). Example. Unfriendly ---- un/friend/ly. MORPHOLOGY study and description of morpheme, morphemes can be free or bound A word can contain one (ex cat) or more morphemes, created through a process of
- Inflection
- Derivation
- Compounding
WORD A word is a single minimum element of the speech which can have several meanings If / I / wash / up / all / this / stuff / somebody / else / can / dry / it Words can be classified in •ORTHOGRAPHIC WORD words used in a written form of language, separated by a space (They wrote us a letter). •GRAMMATICAL WORDS. Words that fall into either one category or another (Ex. Leaves can be either a NOUN or a VERB )
The truth is that these definitions (and many more) are all inadequate. Perhaps, it is better to talk about sentences as composed of lexemes (lexicography) and morphemes (morphology).
PHRASE A phrase is a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit. Example If/ I wash up / all this stuff / somebody else/ can dry/ it When nouns are combined to form patterns those are called noun phrases
Closed classes - contain a limited number of members and new ones cannot be added
Open classes- can be extended , not only by adding new words or adjectives, but also by adding suffixes
QUESTION 5 - Please provide some examples of lexical, functional,
and insert words
Those are the three major families in which words are classified.
1. Lexical words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) -They are the main carriers of information in a text -They can be divided into 4 parts of speech -They are an open class- their number can grow with neologisms -They can be composed of several parts- unfriendly 2. Function words (Prepositions, coordinators, pronouns ) -They show how other elements are related -They are part of closed classes -They occur very frequently
Function word classes can be divided in:
a) Determiners, b) Pronouns, c) auxiliaries, d) prepositions,
e) adverbial particles, which express the core meaning of motion About across, along, around, aside, away, back , by, forth, in, off, on, out, over, past, round, through, under, up …They generally follow verbs- go away, come back f) coordinators, g) Subordinators
3. Inserts -They are freely inserted in a text -They are marked by intonation or punctuation -They convey emotional meaning (Hmhm very good)
•QUESTION 6 - What are derivation, inflexion, and
compounding?
This three concepts refers to the process of formation of words:
- Derivation is the process of adding affixes (pref and suff) but changing word classes and meaning Ex prefixes- unkind, ex president Suffix- centralize A word can have both inflexional and derivational suffixes centralized
- Compounding is when you form words that include more than one stem,examples: -Noun + noun chairman -Verb + noun cookbook -Adjective+ noun bluebird
- Inflection is the process of adding affixes to give it a different syntactic function without changing its form class. It changes the gender, number, word , tense or case (example Boy-boys, live-lived etc..)
There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only eight inflectional affixes in English, and these are all suffixes.
connotations or bias, and a powerful emotional impact. (Refugee, asylum-seeker, immigrant…. Pig, rat/mouse, cow, snake, fox, hawk etc…)
SEMANTIC FIELD a semantic field indicates a set of lexemes which cover a certain conceptual domain and which bear certain specifiable relations to one another. The following examples all concern being/falling in love, which semantic field is employed to carry across the metaphors? - He makes me go weak at the knees.
- I’ve fallen in love - He swept me off my feet - We’re head over heels in love - I’m helpless with desire… EUPHEMISM is when words belonging to certain semantic fields often develop negative connotations. This process is known as deterioration or pejoration. The words ‘pansy’ is a good example of this. Occasionally, though rarely, a word acquires a better/more acceptable meaning over time, in this case we talk of amelioration. IDIOMS are units of language with a fixed grammatical and lexical content. Their meaning cannot be worked out from a study of the individual words contained in the idiom. They usually operate on a metaphorical level.
QUESTION 8- What are some patterns that are used in ads at the
macro-level? (structure of an ad)
The structure components/patterns of an advertisement are:
- The Headline , which is the part that grabs readers’ attention by providing a benefit, and leads to read the rest of the advertisement, it must be brief because most people cannot take in more than 7 words at time. 2) The body copy, which is the selling message in a written advertisement, it expands on the information contained in the headline show in the illustration, it should be simple and direct, it should appeal the sense and the who, what, when, why, where and how of your product. Key words used in copy are: such as compare, introducing, now, price, save, easy and new and must establish an immediate contact with the reader. 3) Illustration which must catch the attention. Almost 100 % of the advertisement are illustrated , some very well know companies will not even bother with a copy **4) The baseline,
- The slogan,** which must support a firm’s signature and it is often added to the four main elements of a print advertisement. It consists in a catch phrase or a small group of words that are combined tin a special way to identify a product or a company (I’m lovin’it – mc Donald..Nespresso What else?...Just do it nike) 6) The signature or logotype is where a sponsor is named and is the distinctive identification symbol for a business (example mc Donald (M) ). They are well designed as they must get instant recognition for a business.
When slogan is developed is important to use strategies , the most used are: alliteration (repeating initial consonant sound –example: going and going), paradox (contradiction between two words that can be trustful- example: it tastes awful but it works), rhyme , pun (a humorous of a word that suggest another meaning or similar in sound) and play on words.
QUESTION 9- How can nouns, pronouns, verb tenses or aspect be
used as strategies in a text?
The format fulfills the AIDA requirements are attention, interest, create desire, get action. One way to do it is to look for groups of words which belong together in a pattern and then to put all the groups of words together. For example: going am I = I am going (or am I going?) the to disco = to the disco weekend next = next weekend We have: -Fixed patterns :they must follow a certain order. (to the disco) -Non-fixed patterns : am I going, I am going A) NOUNS (EXAMPLE IN THE TEXT OFF COURSE (P.68) Nouns can be combined to form patterns called noun phrases E.g. ‘Homemade celery soup’, ‘The Body Shop’ ‘The Vegetarian Restaurant’. ‘oven-ready chips’ ‘semi-skimmed milk’. Writers regularly make creative and communicative use of patterns Writers regularly make creative and communicative use of nouns and noun patterns PATTERN: d m n, where d=definite article, m=modifier and n=noun. the hot flood where ‘flood’ is the noun (n), ‘hot’ the modifier (m) and ‘the’ the definite article (d). the weightless headphone There are no main verbs in ‘Off Course’. The poet has suspended the normal rules of grammar to create a world in which everything is turned upside down, like in outer space or during a disgrace in space The absence of main verbs in a text also removes any sense of time. Anyway, it is not true to say that there are no verbs in the poem. the floating song the growing beard the shining rendezvous the turning continents the crackling headphone the crawling deltas. Are all present participles that convey continuity
- Deontic is metaphysically, it is obligatory. I express meaning relating primarily to what’s required or permitted. In Greek its meaning is ‘’obligation’’. Deontic modality is about the realisability of the preposition by some agent, such as granting permission (EXAMPLE They may go home at this hour)
- Dynamic express ability or inability (They can/cant’t go home at this hour)
MEANING EXPRESSED BY MODALS CAN/CAN’T: possibility , ability, permission MAY/MIGHT: possibility, permission MUST: logical, necessity, obligation, IT HAS NO PAST FORM AND FINITIVE FORM, in that case we use HAVE TO WILL/WOULD : Prediction , volition (intention , willingness, insistence) Volition is a term used to express the action between an agent and a verb , 1- In a verb the volition action takes place as a consequence of agent’s choice. 2- When the agent has no influence on the action we talk about non-volitional verbs SHALL/SHOULD: Prediction / Volition with the 1th^ meaning NEED/HAVE TO Logical necessity/obligation
•QUESTION 11- Provide examples of Lexical cohesion
strategies: Repetition, synonyms, superordinates Antonyms.
The relationship between words in a given text contributes to the text’s LEXICAL COHESION, and makes you aware of what the text is about. Repetition: juice….. Juice Synonyms or near synonyms: saving… investment - Superordination : (hypernyms and hyponyms) a)fruit… apples b) Capital…. money Antonyms: loved… hated
QUESTION 12- provide some examples of collocations
A collocation is a combination of words that are commonly used together.
- Collocations include noun phrases like ‘ stiff wind’ (not ‘heavy wind’), ‘heavy workload’ (not ‘big workload’), and ‘weapons of mass destruction’ (not weapons of widespread destruction) phrasal verbs such as ‘to get together’ and other idiomatic phrases such as ‘the rich and famous’, ‘the bold and the beautiful’… Collocations starting with the verb ‘do’
Do me a Do the cooking Do the housework Do the shopping Do the washing up
- Collocations with the verb ‘have’ Have a good time Have a bath Have a drink Have a haircut Have a holiday Have a problem Have a relationship Have lunch Have sympathy
•QUESTION 13- What is endophoric and exophoric reference?
Both concepts refers to grammar reference: Endophoric reference: reference within a text Exophoric reference: reference to something outside the text.
•QUESTION 14- Provide examples of anaphoric and cataphoric
reference.
1-When a personal pronoums refers back to something stated previously, this is called anaphoric reference. Example: Take a bottle of water and open it (‘’It’’ is a reference to the ‘’bottle of water’’ that is the element of the left ) 2 - When a personal pronoun refers to something which appears later in the text, this is called cataphoric reference Example: After opening it put the bottle of water back in the fridge (‘’bottle of water’’ is a reference to ‘’it’’ that is the element of the right )
- Adversative (contrastive info: yet/however/in any case..)
- Causal (create a causal link: therefore/as a result…) -Temporal (creating a sequential link : then, meanwhile ….) TEXTS Different text types present different ‘patterns’: the way the information and ideas are organized together with the lexical/grammatical/syntactical elements which contribute to such organization. Understanding different types of text
- A text can come in many forms: Letters, adverts, user-guides, postcards, emails, notes and magazine or newspaper articles are all different types of text.
- An advert is written for promotional purposes to persuade you to buy something.
- A user-guide is instructive and is written to tell you how to use something (your washing-machine or a computer programme)
- A formal business letter might be written to inform you about your bank account.
- A personal letter might be written to a friend to describe a recent holiday.
When reading or writing a text, the most important thing is to consider its purpose:
- Who was it written for?
- identify addressor/addressee(s), -what kind of relationship binds them? Formal? Informal
- What is its aim?
- Is it telling a story?
- Is it trying to persuade you to buy something?
- Is it telling you about a news event?
- Is it giving you instructions?
- Are there any visuals to help you?
- Do they reinforce the message of the text?
Depending on the purpose of the text (written/visual/spoken), different strategies, in terms of layout, cohesive devices, register, overall structure, word/grammar/syntactic choices…will be adopted. All these devices serve to reinforce message and the purpose of the text.
The main and hybrid forms Depending on the purpose of the text (written/visual/spoken), different strategies, in terms of layout, cohesive devices, register, overall structure, word/grammar/syntactic choices…will be adopted. All these devices serve to reinforce both the basic message and the purpose of the text.
The main text types are (but there are many sub-text types and hybrid forms):
•QUESTION 16- What are the characteristics of informative texts?
An informative text is a non-fictional text which wants to tell you about something. The writer’s purpose is to increase the reader’s knowledge, to help the reader better understand a procedure or process, or to increase the reader’s comprehension of a concept
- A newspaper article may provide information on the recent terrorist attacks (though this info may be biased) or on how to give up smoking.
- A website may give you information about the latest films/songs or about how to enrole at university.
- A handout may inform you about what your local parish association will be doing next month (this will often be a hybrid form of info/promotional text)
- Informative texts usually (not only and not always…):
- Avoid repetitions
•QUESTION 18- What are the characteristics of instructive texts?
instructive text is a text that instructs or tells you how
An instructive text is a text that instructs or tells you how to do something. Examples:
- A recipe instructs you how to do something.
- An assembly leaflet tells you how to put a piece of furniture together. Instructive texts often (but not only/always):
- Use imperative verb forms.
- Are written as though the reader is ‘being spoken to’ (although the pronoun ‘you’ is generally not used)
- Leave out any ‘unnecessary’ words (adjectives, adverbs, idioms, metaphores.
- Use ‘must’/’must not’.
- Use diagrams or images.
- Use numbers/bullet points or some form of cronological ordering
•QUESTION 19- What are the characteristics of descriptive texts?
A descriptive text is a text that wants you to imagine/visualize what is being described:
- A novel might want you to imagine the characters and see them in your mind.
- A travel book will want you to see the country it is describing.
- A song or poem will want you to feel certain emotions.
Descriptive texts usually (not always and not only):
- Make use of adjectives and adverbs, idioms, metaphors etc…..
- Use comparisons and figurative language to help you picture or visualize what is being described.
- Employ your five senses - how it feels, smells, looks, sounds and tastes.
- Are vivid and colourful and express feelings, emotions
•QUESTION 20 - Different types of speech acts.
Another way to recognize different text types (and different genres: detective fiction, romance novels, institutional leaflets, Self-help literature…) is to investigate verb tense and voice.
- Informative texts tell the reader about ‘the nature of things’, or ‘how things are’. These texttypes tend to use present tense verb forms in order to present ‘reality’.
-Descriptive/narrative prose fiction may also convey messages about ‘the nature of the world’ but it tends to do this by looking back (using past tense verb forms) and describing the events which happened to a number of fictional characters.
Indeed, prose fiction often uses a ‘stop the clock’ strategy (using the present tense or ‘narrative present’) to provide descriptions of places or characters and to transmit the idea that ‘this is how things usually are in this place/with this person’.
Verb voice is also something which tends to vary depending on the text type. There are two types of voice: active and passive.
- She sold the car.
- The car was sold by her.
- I was born in Glasgow. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland.
- I was born in Glasgow. The largest city in Scotland is Glasgow. (not very coherent…)
There are two basic choices in organizing texts: (there are many more complex structures, but here we’ll stick to basics!)
- The theme of one sentence is the same as the theme of the next sentence_._ EXAMPLE “Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social life known as culture”. The rheme of a sentence becomes the theme of the next sentence
SEARL’S SPEECH ACTS Searl in 1976 elaborates in theory of communication in which he support the idea that conversation exists within a social context and this context determines the shape of the discourse. He said that there are different ways of communication, and he named them acts: -Declarations: they change the world by their very utterance I bet, I declare, I resign…. -Commissives: The words commit the speaker to future action I’ll make him an offer he can’t refuse I promise I’ll come to your party -Directives Aiming at making the hearer do something Commanding, requesting, forbidding Why don’t you---- -Expressive- stating how the speaker feels, examples: Deploring, apologizing If I’d known I was would have taken care of myself.
- Representatives: the speaker is committed, in varying degrees, to the truth of a proposition, e.g. ‘affirm’, ‘believe’, ‘conclude’, ‘report’.
•QUESTION 21- Labov’s narrative categories
Labov said that there are different narrative categories:
a) Abstract: signals that a story is about to begin, gets the listener’s attention, might ask for permission to tell a story, gives some indication of what the story is about.
b) Orientation: puts the story into a context, gives the time, place, person(s) involved and situation/activity; the ‘when, where, who and what?’ of the story. c) Complicating action: the main narrative body providing the ‘what happened’ element of the story.
d) Resolution: the final events, the ‘what finally happened’ element.
e) Evaluation: makes the point of the story clear, suggests why it’s worth being told, why it’s of interest. Coda: signals that the story has finished, can also link
Wolfson (1982) on storytelling as dramatised re When a speaker acts out a story, as if to give his audience the opportunity to experience the event and his evaluation of it, he may be said to be giving a performance. Speeches: Scripted speech, like the oral narrative, is normally ‘one way’, that is once the speaker has the floor s/he continues until the end of the speech.
•QUESTION 22- Cooperative principles: quantity, quality,
relevance, manner
Conversation requires some principles to be respected: We have four cooperative principles 1)Maxim of quantity: be as informative as required, not too much, not too little
- Maxim of quality: be sincere
- Maxim of relation: be relevant
- Maxim of manner: don’t be ambiguous They were formulated by H.P.Grice in 1975 by which he claimed speakers operate in a general sense. Grice posited that conversation was essentially a cooperative enterprise where speakers follow certain unspoken rules that are never spelt out but come to be understood and used as part of the process of language acquisition and early socialisation. The associated maxims are as follows:
