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Noun phrase
Head Noun + expansion
Constructions with 2 nouns:
EXAMPLES CONSTRUCTIONS
The motive for the murder
the building of the new site
Noun + for/of + noun
The university’s alumnus
Nairobi’s boys’ school
Genitive construction:
Noun + ‘s + noun
Exam session
Throuser pocket
Sports facilities
Arms trafficking
(usually) Singular Noun + Noun
GENITIVE
-‘s / -‘ (names ending in s or plural) 2 basic rules (“genitive alternation”): Animated Noun1 ‘s Noun Noun1 of Animated Noun DETERMINATIVE GENITIVE
Does not form a unit with the noun head, can be divided bay an ADJ:
functions as a determiner:
ex: a goat’s shaggy beard
CLASSIFYING GENITIVE
Forms a unit with the noun head, the genitive and the had cannot be divided by an adj: functions as a determiner ex: a children’s new museum → a new children’s museum GENITIVE OF MEASURE A mile’s walk / in a month or two’s time the head of the NP in always UNCOUNTABLE. If it’s countable we have to use a pre-head modifier: of UNC → the plane had three hours’ delay a mile’s walk CON → the plane had a three hour delay a one-mile walk ELLIPTIC GENITIVE / independent When the head is left unexpressed: ex: next to my sister’s (house) at my parent’s (home) THE DOUBLE GENITIVE Contains two markers of possession: ‘s /possessive pronoun and of-frase ex: two collegues of my father’s a student of mine Partitive meaning (one or more are picked out of a set): to express this there are some rules:
- the noun in the genitive must be definite
SEBJECT VERB AGREEMENT:
- FORMAL (/GRAMMATICAL) AGREEMENT : if the subject is singular, the verb will also be singular and if the subject is plural, the verb will also be plural. There also are nouns that don’t end traditionally: sheep – sheep phenomenon – phenomena analysis – analyses uncountable nouns always in singular: news, aerobics, diabetes, statistics
- REFERENTIAL (/NOTIONAL) AGREEMENT: The principle of notional concord holds with collective nouns (committee, club, choir, audience, congregation etc). They can take either singular or plural verbs depending on how they are used. The rule is that, if the collective noun performs an action, it takes a plural verb, but if no action is involved, it takes a singular verb: The choir sing very well (not sings, since an action is involved, the verb will be plural), The Choir is very disciplined (not are), Collective nouns: when to use singular and plural form? The audience is quite large (not are), Singular: when the noun is perceived as a unit, The audience were clapping their hands (not is) Plural: when the noun is referred to the individuals Concord of money, measurement, distance, and time When a word that denotes money, measurement and time is used as the subject of a sentence, the verb will be singular. Twenty thousand naira is too small for me to spend, Five hundred thousand dollars was spent on the project (not were), Five cups of water is all he needs (not are) Concord of Fraction and percentages When a word that denotes fraction and percentage is used with the subject of a sentence, it can take either singular or plural verbs depending on what comes after it. If a singular noun comes after it, it takes a singular verb and if a plural noun comes after it, it takes a plural verb. Ninety percent of dogs like bones A majority of voters are not satisfied The majority of the information on their web is correct A number of students have complained about the new policy The number of students has risen sharply
- PROXIMAL AGREEMENT: if two or more subjects are coordinated (joined) by the correlative coordinators either……. or / neither…..nor/ none , the subject that is closest to the verb determines the concord- the rest are ignored If Sandra fails her exams, either her parents, her friends or her sister is to blame. Concord of indefinite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are those pronouns that end in “body”, “thing” and “one” (somebody, everybody, nobody, anybody, something, everything, nothings, anything etc.) They have a plural connotation, but they take singular verbs. Everybody in this class is hungry (not are),
Nobody likes to be disrespected (not like), Anything is better than nothing (not are). Concord of quasi coordinated subjects. As well as / with / together with / in conjunction with / along with / besides. When these words are used to join two subjects, only the first subject controls the verb and determines the concord, the second subject is ignored. The president together with his ministers has arrived (not have), The principal as well as all the teachers and students is (not are) in the hall right now, The man with his wife was killed in the earthquake
FINITE VERB FORMS
show tense, person and number
( I go, she goes, we went , etc.):
She was waiting in the room before he came in.
Does your brother know my brother?
The night before he had to leave, they sat on the
small sofa in the living-room and looked at old family
photos.
Aren’t you a bit late?
NON-FINITE VERB
forms do not show tense, person or number. Typically
infinitive forms with/without to, - ing and - ed forms:
She tiptoed round the house so as not to
wake anyone.
You need to paint the whole cupboard, starting from
the bottom.
INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES
- yes-no questions (/total interrogatives)
- wh- questions (/partial interrogatives)
- question tags (has reverse polarity and constant polarity)
- echo questions
- embedded interrogatives
TRANSITIVITY:
- IMPERSONAL VP: has no determinate subject: it rains
- INTRANSITIVE VP: requires only the Subject^1 : When I^1 walked in, she was sleeping
- TRANSITIVE VP: requires the Subject^1 and the Direct Object^2 : I^1 like to read books^2 in my spare time
- DITRANSITIVE VP: requires Subject^1 , Direct^2 and Indirect Object^3 : He^1 gave her^2 a flower^3
SITUATION TYPES:
ASPECT
-Duration -Dynamicity -Inherent endpoint MEANINGS COMMUNICATED BY THE PROGRESSIVE
- Limited duration: used with achievement can create a slow-motion effect or repetitive action
PRESENT TENSE
NONPROGRESSIVE PROGRESSIVE
-Present habit -Temporary situations/habit -Permanent characteristics -Ongoing action -State -Affect -Sport commentaries for ongoing actions -Planned future -Performative verbs -Narrative present -Fixed unalterable future -Reference to the past (but not expressed) -Newspaper headlines, captions
PRESENT PERFECT
INDEFINITE ACTIVITIES
The focus is on the result (He’s already played football...) The focus is on duration (He’s been playing football…) INDEFINITE ACCOMPLISHMENT The endpoint has been reached The activity is in progression INDEFINITE ACHIVEMENTS The situation referred to happened just once Repetitive reading
PAST TENSE : MEANINGS
- chronological distance
- distance from reality: HYPOTETICAL modal past in subordinate clauses (isn’t it time that he took responsibility) COINTERFACTUAL against the facts (she dresses as though she was still in her twenties)
- Politeness/tentativeness: Will/Would you open the door? / I hoped(hope) you could(can) answer this one
- distance from the speaker: INDIRECT SPEECH (He said, “ I went home”. → He said that he had gone home) Special uses: NONPROGRESSIVE:
- Timetable future looked from the past (He told me he was sorry but that he worked on Sundays) PROGRESSIVE:
- Planned future in the past (They were leaving early next morning, so they went to bed at 9)
- Narrative description of a scene (The wind was blowing, and the rain was pouring)
- My students (always)___ about the homework I gave them, so I _____ giving them less. 7. She _____ me the book last month, but I _____ it until last weekend. 8. The kids _____ in their room and my husband _____ in the garden: the
FUTURE PERFECT
something happening in the future but anterior to this future moment
- INDEFINITE: By next month, the decision will have been made official.
- CONTINUATIVE: They will have been living in Hungary for 10 years on 16 May.
- REPETITIVE: By the end of this year, we will have seen each other several times. Non progressive: will have + past participle progressive: will have + been + -ing/past participle
PAST FUTURE
WOULD
He said he would be sleeping and not to disturb him under any circumstances. As a child, she wouldn’t eat uncooked vegetables. He said he would stay by her side until she died. Years later, this relatively unknown scientist would win the Nobel prize If you hired an assistant, it would save a lot of time. PAST (moment of reference) NOW (moment of speech) FUTURE Talking about…
PAST FUTURE PERFECT
would + have + past participle express something that could have actualized but did not
- INDEFINITE: They said they would have completed the manuscript before August 1.
- CONTINUATIVE: If my grandad hadn’t died right before their wedding anniversary, my grandparents would have been married for 50 years.
- REPETITIVE: You can’t possibly have rung the doorbell. The dog would have been barking like crazy
MODALS
- PERIPHERAL MODALS (“LEXICAL MODAL VERBS”)
need to, have to, be to They can express Possibility and Necessity
- PERIPHRASTIC MODAL EXPRESSIONS be able to, be allowed to, manage to They can express Ability and Permission
- MODAL AUXILIARIES: can, shall, must, could, might, will, ought to, may, would, should They can express Possibility, Necessity and Volition/Willingness
EPISTEMIC MEANING NON-EPISTEMIC MEANING
- Probability
- Hypothesis Necessity (pragmatic) Permission/Prohibition (deontic) Obligation (deontic) (In)Ability/(Im)Possibility (pragmatic) Willingness/Politeness (pragmatic)
Hypothetical (we think it may happen): il tempo a cui mira è futuro ma si usa il were
We would be grateful if you were able to come at 7am tomorrow. Isn’t it time he took responsibility for it
Counterfactual (against the facts, it’s unreal): il tempo è presente ma si usa il were
I wish I ruled the world Od course I’d rather you didn’t leave. Do you even need to ask that?
