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William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Short historical background about gender roles in the 16th century : generally in the 16th century gender e roles were very strict and the showed how male and female should think, dress, interact in the society… Little boys were expected to act as gentlemen and perform duties as an adult tradesman. Men had to be educated and have social power, they had to be able to support and maintain their family, contribute to community and participate in government. Women, on the other hand, were generally discouraged to learn beyond basic learning levels, even if they belonged to the upper classes. After receiving this limited education, they were taught how to become perfect housewives. They were not allowed to participate in political discussion, they had no right to own a business, to hold a property or to get a divorce. It was important for them to get married and have children very soon.
More specifically, in Shakespeare… Sexuality and gender are prominent themes in
Shakespeare’s plays. Masculine men can play effeminate female roles and effeminate women can play masculine male roles (yet not on stage). Shakespeare wrote plays belonging to a variety of genres: from romance to tragedy to history to comedy. Each genre had its own way of blurring the lines of sexuality and gender, as well as its own set of rules and methods for how sexuality and gender were displayed and the limitations they possessed. Although there are women who face tragic fates in Shakespeare’s tragedies, they are mainly dominated by men. Significant examples are Titus Andronicus , Hamlet , and Othello , where the male characters’ fates rule the plot. As regards sexuality, the critic Gajowski speaks of… “detachment from sexual violence” (Evelyn Gajowski, Presentism, gender, and sexuality in Shakespeare, Basingstoke England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, p. 71) …In his tragedies. In Othello for example, when he murders Desdemona, Gajowski explains that the violence is uncontrollable… “In Othello [5.2.1] impending male violence toward the female is conceived of and articulated as an impersonal force beyond the control of the male protagonist.” (Gajowski 71). Tragedy favoured the side of men, they mainly control the plot and their fates hold the main focus. However , Shakespeare’s comedies take a different approach… “If the dark realm of Shakespeare’s tragedies is essentially men’s territory, pride of place in the bright panorama of his comedies must surely belong to the women.” (Angela Pitt, Shakespeare’s women. Newton Abbot Devon: David & Charles, 1981, p. 75). Indeed, Shakespeare’s comedies are predominantly ruled by women , and it is in comedies that we see the reversal of gender roles, such as Titania’s power in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Critic Angela Pitt makes an interesting point as regards the role of women in Shakespeare’s plays and the possible reason Shakespeare chose women for his comedies: “Why should the women leap into prominence? One reason may be that Shakespeare found their traditional attributes of modesty, intuition and high-spiritedness highly suitable material for his comedies, and in varying blends and degrees, all his comic heroine’s have these characteristics. They never go beyond what an Elizabethan audience would have found acceptable in a woman: it is rather that Shakespeare exalts the positive, rather than the negative traits. Any women that go against prevailing conventions are redeemed by the end of the play” (Pitt, p. 75). Comedy provides a safety net that allows the unfamiliar or the unacceptable to be presented in public, because the stakes are perceived to be lower than in tragedy. Consequently, the outrageousness or unthinkability of some images can be excused as inconsequential playfulness. This allows greater free play than in a genre like tragedy that is taken more seriously and is more closely scrutinised as a result. His life He was born in the small market town of Stratford-on-Avon. His father, after being elected to several important posts in the local government, suffered financial and social problems. We’re not sure but he probably attended the he local grammar school, growing an impressive education and a respectable knowledge of Latin. But, the first unambiguous record of his life is his marriage, in 1582, to Anne Hathaway. In 1592 he was in London as an actor; but by the 1594 he is part of the Lord Chamberlains Men. His company, nonetheless thrived and in 1599 began to perform in the Globe , a fine open-air theatre that the company built itself on the south bank of the Thames.
Already by the 1597, Shakespeare prospered and could now call himself a gentlemen. He died a month later signing his will, in march 1616. His career He begun his career as a playwright, probably in the early 1590s, by writing comedies and historical plays, the earliest of these histories seem theatrically vital but crude, as does an early attempt at tragedy. But Shakespeare’s quickly moved on to create by the later 1590s a sequence of profoundly searching and ambitious historical plays and in the Same years he wrote a succession of romantic comedies, such as The Merchant of Venice, the merry wives of Windsor and as you like it , whose poetic richness and emotional complexity remain unmatched. The year when hamlet was written (1601) was also the beginning of an outpouring of great tragic dreams, such as Othello and Macbeth. These pays, written from 1601 to 1607 mark a major shift in sensibility, an existential and metaphysical darkening that many readers think must have originated in personal anguish. Between 1608 and 1611 Shakespeare had developed a remarkably fluid, dreamlike sense of plot and a poetic style that could veer, apparently effortlessly, from the torture to the ineffably sweet, are now commonly known as Romances : these plays are interest in the moral and emotional life less of the adolescents who dominate the earlier comedies then of their parents, the romances are deeply concerned with patterns of loss and recovery, suffering and redemption, despair and renewal. Ina few of the following plays he had collaborators. Selfhood Shakespeare rarely invented the plots of his dramas, preferring to work, often quite closely, with stories he found ready-made, novellas, narrative poems… the religious mystery plays and the allegorical morality plays still popular during his childhood thought him that dramas worth seeing must get at something central to the human condition Shakespeare learned how to construct plays around the struggle for the soul of a protagonist, how to create theatrically compelling and subversive figures of weakness and how to focus attention on his character’ psychological, moral and spiritual lives as well as on their outward behaviour. —> The authors of the morality plays thought they could enhance the road impact they sought to achieve by stripping their characters of all incidental distinguishing trait and getting their essences. They believed that their audiences would thereby not be distracted by irrelevant details of individual identities. No other writer of his time was blue to create and enter into the interior worlds of so many characters, conveying again and again a sense of unique and irreducible selfhood. Shakespeare language: his immense vocabulary bears witness to an uncanny ability to absorb terms from a wide range of pursuits and to transform them into intimate registers of thought and feeling. He had seemingly boundless capacity to generate metaphors and he was virtually addicted to wordplay. Double meanings, verbal echoes and submerged associations tippled through every passage, deepening the readers enjoyment and understanding. Anachronism is rarely a concern for Shakespeare.
Sonnets
What’s a sonnet? Is a poem made by 14 verses, divided in a various forms, it depends on the traditions of the author but there’re three principle types: I) Petrarchan Sonnet: one octave (abba/abba) and one sextuplet (cdc/cdc) with once between the two verses = two thoughts or development of a thought [hendecasyllables/ iambic pentameters in Milton]; II) Spenserian sonnet: 3 quatrains (abab, bcbc, cdcd) and a couplet (ee) – 3 thoughts and conclusion [iambic pentameter]; III) Shakespearean sonnet: three quatrains (abab, bcbc, cdcd) and a final couplet (ee). What, have I thus betrayed my liberty? Can those black beams such burning marks engrave In my free side? or am I born a slave, Whose neck becomes such yoke of tyranny? Sidney, (1591), Astrophel and Stella, dal sonnet 47. In Elizabethan England, aristocratic patronage was probably a professional writer’s most important asset; this patronage, or at least Shakespeare quest of it, is most visible in his
Some general feature about the Shakespearean play
Evolving scenes: the progress of a Shakespearean play is usually linked to the gradual clarification of things which are left mysterious at the beginning. Themes are hinted at, but their real meanings becomes apparent much later. Opinions and assumptions are formed, and though they seem unimportant at the time, they turn out to be decisive after several scenes. There is also a frequent contrast between scenes with many character and scenes with few, scenes in public and private, those full of action and those who devoted to reflection, major scenes, with crucial events, are preceded and followed by shorter scenes whose function is simply to provide information. Shakespeare sometimes leaves some questions open so that we continue to think about the answer to puzzle after the play is over. Structure Most of the times Shakespeares disregarded the three Aristotelian unities of time, place and action so that the structure of the play was flexible. The division between act was not his priority and so he often put it later. In Elizabethan theatre the plays were formed without an interval; as a rule, in Shakespeares plays a scene was over only when all the characters have left the scene.
- Soliloquies
- Asides
- Introductory passages spoken in a prologue or by chorus
- Funeral orations
- Death-bed speeches. Characters: he did not take his character from one only social class, hierarchy forms the background of every play/ there is almost always a man of royal or aristocratic blood, a king, a prince, a duke, a statesman or a nobleman. Form the aristocracy the list descends to nurses, rustics and servants. Another important feature is the importance of family ties. These relationships are often in contrasting form, suggesting conflict between older and younger generations. There are also symmetrical correspondences Style He used different levels of speech and action to portray his characters from different angels, close up and at a distance. A character may suddenly change from everyday prose to solemn verse; theres sometimes the insertion of allegorical scenes, songs, music and dances, as well as magical transformations. Imagery —> Shakespeares language is characterised by a wide variety of rhetorical figures (similes, metaphors, assonance, alliteration); some plays have characteristic image motifs (fro example clothes imagery in Macbeth). These image-clusters are connected to the main themes of the plays and define their tones; Shakespeares use of vocabulary have never been surpassed: he used obscure and archaic words, mythological allusions and he invented a dramatic number of new words. The variety in the verse structure is also impressive: Shakespeare re-shaped the regular bank-verse line, increasingly using irregular lines from one play to the next. MACBETH It was written and first staged in 1606, its a tragedy in five acts. It was published in a first folio edition, by Hemings and Condell (two actors of the King’s men company). Three lords Three ladies The heads of two hostile families There households Two lovers Two princes Two brothers These are only some of the conventions used by Shakespeare that were natural on stage where the contact between actors and audience was very close.
The setting is the kingdom of Scotland during the 11th century. “…no other Shakespearean drama appears so long, ... no action takes place ... with such agonizing slowness, with such toil and torment. It is not the material duration that matters here, but the psychological and moral duration…” Why did he choose Scotland? First of all because, according to a legend, Banquo or his son Fleance, was ancestors of the Stuart dynasty; so it is related to king James VI of Scotland, after Queen Elizabeth died was renew king James I of England. James I was also the king of the King’s Men and the author of Demonology (a book published in the 1597 on the subject of witchcraft). Plot Three witches tell the Scottish general Macbeth that he will be King of Scotland. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth kills the king, becomes the new king, and kills more people out of paranoia. Civil war erupts to overthrow Macbeth, resulting in more death. Act 1 In Scotland, Macbeth and Banquo, two of King Duncan's generals, discover three strange women (witches). The witches prophesy that Macbeth will be promoted twice :
- Thane of Cawdor (a rank of the aristocracy bestowed by grateful kings);
- King of Scotland. Banquo's descendants will be kings, but Banquo isn't promised any kingdom himself. The generals want to hear more, but the "weird sisters" disappear. Soon afterwards, King Duncan names Macbeth Thane of Cawdor as a reward for his success in the recent battles. The promotion seems to support the prophecy. The King then proposes to make a brief visit that night to Macbeth's castle at Inverness. Lady Macbeth receives news from her husband about the prophecy and his new title. She vows to help him become king by whatever means are necessary. Act 2 Macbeth returns to his castle, followed almost immediately by King Duncan. The Macbeths plot together to kill Duncan and wait until everyone is asleep. At the appointed time, Lady Macbeth gives the guards drugged wine so Macbeth can enter and kill the King. He regrets this almost immediately, but his wife reassures him. She leaves the bloody daggers by the dead king just before Macduff, a nobleman, arrives. When Macduff discovers the murder, Macbeth kills the drunken guards in a show of rage and retribution. Duncan's sons, Malcolm and Donalbain, flee, fearing for their own lives; but they are, nevertheless, blamed for the murder. Is this a dagger which I see before me? (Macbeth, act 2 scene 1). Act 3 Macbeth becomes King of Scotland but is plagued by feelings of insecurity. He remembers the prophecy that Banquo's descendants will inherit the throne and arranges for Banquo and his son Fleance to be killed. In the darkness, Banquo is murdered, but his son escapes the assassins. At his state banquet that night, Macbeth sees the ghost of Banquo and worries the courtiers with his mad response. Lady Macbeth dismisses the court and unsuccessfully tries to calm her husband. Act 4 Macbeth seeks out the witches who say that he will be safe until a local wood, Birnam Wood, marches into battle against him. He also need not fear anyone born of woman. They also prophesy that the Scottish succession will still come from Banquo's son. Macbeth embarks on a reign of terror, slaughtering many, including Macduff's family. Macduff had gone to seek Malcolm (one of Duncan's sons who fled) at the court of the English king. Malcolm is young and unsure of himself, but Macduff, pained with grief, persuades him to lead an army against Macbeth. By the pricking of my thumbs, something wicked this way comes (Macbeth, act 4 scene 1) Act 5 Macbeth feels safe in his remote castle at Dunsinane until he is told that Birnam Wood is moving towards him. Malcolm's army is carrying branches from the forest as camouflage for their assault on Macbeth's stronghold. Meanwhile, an overwrought and conscience- ridden Lady Macbeth walks in her sleep and tells her secrets to her doctor. She commits
Night, sleeplessness, nightmare: inner darkness and inability to keep it under control (ante-litteram «Dr Jekyll-Mr Hyde syndrome») Guilt: «Knock» «Knock» «Knock within» (symbolic stage direction in scenes 2-3 in Act II , after the murder) The three witches, they are recognised by Banquo and Macbeth as something supernatural. They have malicious intentions and prophetic powers but are not active agents, they just talk and offer prophecies and potions. In other words, the witches appeal to what Macbeth wants to believe, they exist as constant reminders of the potential for evil in the human imagination. Paradox and antithesis: a structural principle from the incipit MORAL DISORDER, embodied by the witches. A tragedy of oppositions The baron Ross and his father (Act II, Scene 4) Ross : [...] Is ’t night’s predominance or the day’s shame That darkness does the face of Earth entomb When living light should kiss it? Old man : 'Tis unnatural, even like the deed that’s done. On Tuesday last, a falcon, tow'ring in her pride of place, was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. Ross : And Duncan’s horses—a thing most strange and certain— Beauteous and swift, the minions of their race, turned wild in nature, broke their stalls, flung out, Contending 'gainst obedience, as they would make war with mankind. Old man : ‘Tis said they ate each other. Macbeth [Aside] [...] This supernatural soliciting Cannot be ill, cannot be good : if ill, Why hath it given me earnest of success, Commencing in a truth? I am thane of Cawdor: If good, why do I yield to that suggestion Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair And make my seated heart knock at my ribs, Against the use of nature? Present fears Are less than horrible imaginings : My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, Shakes so my single state of man that function Is smother’d in surmise, and nothing is But what is not. (Act I, Scene 3, before the murder, which is carried out in act II, end of scene 1) Themes Macbeth is the shortest of Shakespeares tragedies, simple in the plot but complex in the psychological analysis of what take place in the mind of the criminal. Unlike the other great tragedies, there is no villain acting against the hero; because Macbeth is both the hero and the Light Darkness (physical and symbolic) Inside (castle, closure, unnatural deeds) Outside (nature responding to the crime) Natural Unnatural ( unnatural deeds/ do breed unnatural troubles ) Evil (in action as well as in thought) Good (outside and within the individual) Health Insanity (individual and collective)
villain. He begins as the heroic warrior but, led by ambition, he chooses evil and becomes a murderous tyrant. So the main themes are: Regicide, an act against nature that brings chaos, catastrophe and terrible weather conditions. The term ‘blood’, ‘bloody’ and ‘to bleed’ are the most frequently used words in the play (repeated more then a hound red times); The reversal of values introduced by the three witches, it represents the darkest, most dangerous aspect of equivocation. Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Closely related to the previous theme, is the one of false appearances. Shakespeares explores the difference between what is true and only seems to be true; this theme finds expression through the chan of metaphors connected with ‘clothing’. Time : if the time progresses in a way pre-ordained, whatever action we take to change the future can only be one of the steps necessary to achieve that precise future. The alternative is a future which is neither fixed or shaped by human activity, this theme is associated with a chain of images concerned with growth.
Gender issues
Noticing her husband’s hesitation about the murder, Lady Macbeth reprimands him: “ What beast was’t then/ That made you break this enterprise to me?/ When you durst do it, then you were a man ” (I. 7) Lady Macbeth asks Macbeth to lay the daggers near the grooms Macbeth: I’ll go no more./ I’m afraid to think what I have done/ Look on’t again I dare not. Lady Macbeth: Infirm of purpose! Give me the daggers. [...] It must seem their guilt (II. 2) During the banquet Macbeth is upset by the vision of Banquo’s ghost. Lady Macbeth asks him: “ Are you a man? ” and defines him as “unmanned in folly” (III. 4) The bearded witches Banquo: “ You should be women; And yet your beards forbid me to interpret That you are so ” (I. 3) Projection of evil, but they never execute it homo faber fortunae suae, free arbiter of his destiny.
