LETTERATURA INGLESE 2 - concorso ter, Appunti di Letteratura Inglese

Scarica LETTERATURA INGLESE 2 - concorso ter e più Appunti in PDF di Letteratura Inglese solo su Docsity! 1 From the REINASSANCE to the RESTORATION HISTORICAL CONTEXT The English Renaissance covers a broad historical period lasting from 1509, the year which marked the ascent to the throne of Henry VIII, to 1660, that is the beginning of the Restoration. From the Plantagenet dynasty to the Tudor dynasty The Plantagenet dynasty, which ruled England from 1154 to 1485, was a powerful royal house that saw both prosperity and turmoil. The dynasty included notable monarchs such as Henry II, Richard the Lionheart, and Edward III. However, internal conflicts, such as the Wars of the Roses (1455 and 1485) between the rival factions of York and Lancaster, weakened the dynasty's hold on power and ultimately led to the end of the Plantagenet dynasty. The conflict culminated in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where Henry Tudor, member of the Lancastrian faction, defeated King Richard III, the last Plantagenet king. Henry Tudor then ascended to the throne as King Henry VII and the Tudor dynasty was established. The Tudor dynasty (1485-1603) - King Henry VII ➡ was not a member of the royal family, so he needed to justify his new dynasty. Propaganda was written to support Henry VII (Shakespeare’s play Richard III is a good example). Henry VII encouraged trade, cloth industry, He also laid the foundations of English naval power and sponsored voyages to discover the North America. Henry VII's reign marked the beginning of a new era in English history characterized by centralized royal power and economic stability. - Henry VIII ➡ his reign was that of a typical Renaissance prince presiding over a cultured and splendid court. Henry himself was an accomplished musician and linguistic. The second half of his reign was dominated by the Reformation (1509 - 1559) and the establishment of the Church of England. ⬇ The Protestant Reformation in Germany had begun with the doctrines of Martin Luther. Indeed, Henry VIII did not want to transform England into a Protestant country: in 1521 he was even honoured by the Pope with the title of ‘Defender of the Faith’ for the pamphlet he wrote against Luther. However, Henry’s queen, Catherine of Aragon, was too old to give him a male heir, whilst his mistress, Ann Boleyn, was pregnant. The only way he could have a legitimate male heir was to marry her. To divorce and re-marry, Henry set up the Church of England and was excommunicated by the Pope. As a result, Henry declared himself ‘Supreme head of the Church’ in England. The break from Rome was legitimised by Parliament, which also suppressed orders of monks and established the supremacy of the State over the Church. Monasteries became ruins. The new Anglican Church was born. It was independent from Rome, but still faithful to its dogma. - Edward VI ➡ he was the only male heir of Henry VIII (Ann Boleyn had a daughter, Elizabeth) only nine when his father died. Although his reign was very short (he died at age of 15), the Anglican Church became truly Protestant, distancing the country from Catholic traditions. Before his death, Edward tried to exclude his Catholic half-sister Mary from the line of succession due to their religious differences. 2 - Anyway, Queen Mary I took the power and her reign was characterised by the attempt to return the country to Catholicism ➡ Mary I earned the nickname ‘Bloody Mary’ because of the number of Protestants that were burned for heresy during her reign. - Elizabeth I succeeded her sister Mary in 1558 and became England’s most popular ruler. Her main achievements were: o the creation of the Church of England (thanks to which she finally closed the religious issue). She found a compromise, but extreme Protestants, called Puritans, were not satisfied with it. o the defeat of the Spanish Armada (thanks to the weather and the superior design of the English ships). Besides this event, the Queen tried to avoid wars in general. o Trade and explorations expanded, making England a commercial and seafaring power. The Tudor dynasty came to an end with the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, as she left no heirs. The English throne then passed to King James VI of Scotland, who became King James I of England, inaugurating the Stuart The Stuart dynasty (1603-1625) Since Queen Elizabeth I died without leaving an heir, the English throne passed to James I of Scotland (the first of Stuart’s dynasty), who had familial lineage with the Tudors. The union of the crowns of England and Scotland brought the two kingdoms under a single monarch, a significant moment in British history. His reign was characterised by: - tendency towards absolutism: he believed in the divine right of kings, so he refused any compromise (unlike Elizabeth I). James I tried to rule without the help of Parliament, which was summoned only three times when he needed money. - religious repression: James supported the Church of England and took restrictive measures against all dissenters. A group of Catholics planned a plot (called the Gunpowder plot) to blow up the king and Parliament and restore the Roman Catholic religion in England. Religious repression against the Puritans instead led to the first wave of emigration. In 1620 a group of dissenters, the Pilgrim Fathers, sailed onboard the Mayflower to escape persecution. They landed in North America founding New Plymouth, the first community of New England. Charles I succeeded his father James I. He followed his prints (absolutism, against the Parliament, persecution of Puritans). The clash between the king and Parliament led to the Civil War, which broke out in 1642 ⬇ TWO FRACTIONS: Royalists (known as Cavaliers) - leader: Oliver Cromwell - members: lords, gentry, Church of England Parliamentarians (known as Roundheads) members: new gentry, small landowners, artisans, Puritans How did it end? Charles was imprisoned, trialed and beheaded in 1649 ➡ monarchy was abolished. Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, England was proclaimed a Republic, the first and only time in English history. The Republic of England, the so-called Commonwealth lasted 10 years (1649-1659). However, the groups which had supported Parliament against the King further divided and made government difficult. Cromwell found himself a military dictator. 5 "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" is one of William Shakespeare's most famous sonnets, Sonnet 18, from his collection of 154 sonnets. Comment: Sonnet 18 follows the typical structure of a Shakespearean sonnet, containing 14 lines written in iambic pentameter. It consists of three quatrains (four-line stanzas) followed by a rhyming couplet (two-line stanza). The central theme of Sonnet 18 is the power of poetry to immortalize beauty and love. The speaker grapples with the idea of comparing the beloved to a summer's day but ultimately concludes that the beloved's beauty surpasses the transience of nature. The sonnet is rich in vivid imagery that contrasts the ephemeral nature of summer with the timeless beauty of the beloved. The speaker depicts the flaws and imperfections of a summer day (too hot, too rough) in contrast to the everlasting beauty of the beloved captured in the poem. The conceit in Sonnet 18 lies in the extended metaphor comparing the beloved to a summer's day. The speaker considers various elements of summer—winds, roughness, and the fleeting nature of the season—and ultimately concludes that the beloved's beauty transcends these temporal qualities. Shakespeare employs various poetic devices in Sonnet 18, including alliteration, personification, enjambment, and imagery. The use of these devices enhances the aesthetic appeal of the poem and reinforces the speaker's argument about the immortality of the beloved through verse. Sonnet 18 follows the traditional Shakespearean rhyme scheme ABABCDCDEFEFGG. In conclusion, Sonnet 18, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" stands as a timeless example of Shakespeare's mastery of language and poetry. Through its exploration of beauty, love, and the enduring power of verse, this sonnet continues to captivate readers with its evocative imagery and profound themes. YOU SUMMER 6 John Donne (1572-1631) John Donne was born in 1572. Both his parents were Roman Catholics at a time when anti- Catholic sentiment was common in England, and Donne received a Roman Catholic education before going to Oxford when he was eleven. In 1592 he entered the Inns of Court, in London, to study law. It was in these years that Donne wrote his early love lyrics, songs, sonnets and satires which circulated privately among his friends and were much admired. Holy Sonnets ➡ Donne's series of Holy Sonnets delve deeply into themes of sin, redemption, and divine grace. In "Holy Sonnet XIV," Donne passionately pleads for God's mercy and forgiveness, reflecting his intense spiritual struggles. In addition, Donne frequently incorporates biblical allusions and references in his poetry. In poems like "Batter my heart, three-person'd God," he draws on biblical imagery to convey the complexities of his faith and his desire for spiritual transformation. Donne often uses sacramental imagery to explore the relationship between the physical and the spiritual and to reflect on the sacraments of the Christian faith and their significance in his life. These examples showcase the richness and complexity of John Donne's exploration of religious themes in his poetry. Donne's blending of intellectual inquiry, emotional depth, and profound spirituality has made his poetry enduringly relevant to readers seeking to engage with questions of faith and devotion. Let’s analyse two important sonnets: Comment: Batter my heart is one of the most powerful of the Holy Sonnets, written between 1609 and 1611. It deals with the poet’s love of God through strikingly original images. Indeed, the speaker passionately pleads for God to violently transform and renew his sinful soul. 7 Comment: In this poem John Donne is addressing to a friend of his, asking him to perform a list of impossible things, for example catching a falling star or being able to hear a mermaid singing without getting mad, emphasizing that the last request, that is to say finding a faithful a woman, is impossible too. The layout of this song is unregular, the lines are of a different length and the register is informal, although the rhyme scheme is regular. In this poem John Donne uses all of the characteristic features of metaphysical poetry: the song begins in medias res and it's a dramatic monologue, then a lot of conceits and paradox are used, moreover the actions described belong to the fields of astronomy, mythology, superstition and alchemy. The poet has a very cynical view of women, indeed he asks the addressee to find a faithful one after listing impossible things. He expresses that women are unfaithful, dishonest, unreliable and deceptive. Even if some aren't, whenever he gets to know them, they change into unfair. Go and catch a falling star COPPPPPPANZALIA A the dialogue The dialogue is the main support of drama since: @ _it creates the action; it provides details about the characters and their relationships; @ _it shows what a character thinks about another; @ _it gives information about the past and can foreshadow subsequent events. a The balcony scene William Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet (1594-96) Act II, Scene I q) | Romeo Lady, by yonder blessed' moon I swear® 245 That tips with silver all these fruit-tree tops! — O, swear not by the moon, the inconstant moon, ‘That monthly changes in her circled orb, 5 Lest that: thy love prove likewise variable. Romeo What shall I swear by? Juriet Do not swear at all; Or, if thou wilt°, swear by thy gracious self, Which is the god of my idolatry, 10 And l'’11 believe thee. Juwier yonder blessed. Quella sacra. 1 swear. Giuro, That ..tops. Che copre d'argento le cime del frutteto. Lest that. Per paura che. likewise. Altrettanto. will. Will COPPPAPPANIAI AA the aside __The aside is a short comment made by a character for the audience alone, usually occurring in or between speeches. Its purpose can be: @ toreveal the nature of the speaker; @ to draw the attention of the audience to the importance of what has been said or to explain developments; @ to create humour by introducing the unexpected. The bond William Shakespeare The Merchant of Venice (1597) Act I, Scene III ch) | Bassanio This is Signor Antonio. 217 | SuxLocx [Aside] How like a fawning publican' he looks! I hate him for he is a Christian; But more for that in low simplicity 5 He lends out money gratis, and brings down The rate of usance® here with us in Venice. If I can catch him once upon the hip), I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him*. He hates our sacred nation and he rails 10 Even there where merchants most do congregate On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift6, Which he calls interest. Cursèd be my tribe I£1 forgive him! 1 fawning publican. Servile pubblicano 4 1 will... bear him. Ingrasserò l'antico rancore (i pubblicani erano anche esattori delle tasse che gli porto. durante il dominio romano). $ rails. Inveisce. 2 rateof usance. Tasso di interesse. 6 do congregate ... rift. Si radunano contro 3 upon the hip. Di fianco, cioè in una posizione di me, i miei affari, il guadagnato di svantaggio. profitto. CEPPPPPAPIMIAI A stage directions Stage directions are open interventions, usually written in italics, intermingled in the script of the play. They provide information about the places, characters and visual and sound effects. My hands are of your colour William Shakespeare Macbeth (1606) Act II, Scene II d) | Re-enter Lady Macbeth. 2.18 | Lapy MacgetH My hands are of your colour; but I shame To wear a heart so white. [Knock] I hear a knocking At the south entry: — retire we to our chamber. A little water clears us of this deed: 5 How easy is it then! Your constancy Hath left you unattended'. — [Knock] Hark! more knocking. Get on your night-gown, let? occasion call us, And show us be watchers. — Be not lost So poorly in your thoughts. To know my deed, 'twere best not know myself. [Knock] Wake Duncan with thy knocking: I would thou couldst! Exeunt. 10 MACBETH  11 The world of theatre James Burbage built the first permanent theatres: The THEATRE (1576) The CURTAIN (1577) The Elizabethan players had a stable home (before ➡ plays took place everywhere it was possible to erect a stage and gather a crowd) Apparently, there was no scenery: tables, chairs, swords were used on the stage. Plays were acted in the daylight and for night scenes only a candle or a torch symbolically transported the audience into the night. The architecture Permanent theatres were circular or octagonal. - Within the outer walls there were three tiers of roofed galleries, looking down on the stage and the yard where the poorer spectators stood. - Inside, the stage jutted out into the yard so that when the theatre was full, the players were surrounded on three sides. No more than 12 actors could appear on the stage at the same time because of space restrictions. In front of the stage there was a trap door used to make the actors appear and disappear. There were two doors for entrances and exits. Behind the stage there was an ‘inner stage’, concealed by a curtain Actors’ profile Only men could become actors (in Shakespeare’s time there were no actresses ➡ the parts of young women were acted by boys), Actors belonged to a team and were always ready to improvise in case of emergency. 12 William Shakespeare Life was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1564, possibly on 23rd April, which is also said to be the date of his death. His father was a yeoman (a successful tradesman), until he met with financial difficulties. William was the eldest son and attended the local grammar school, which gave him a thorough grounding in the use of language and classical authors. He married Anne Hathaway when he was only eighteen and she was twenty-six and pregnant with their daughter. In 1584 he left Stratford and went to London. It was at that time that he first experienced the playhouse. He was received into one of the acting companies at a very minor level at first, but his admirable wit soon distinguished him – if not as a great actor, as an excellent writer. In 1593 the London theatres were closed because of the plague, and Shakespeare needed the support of a private patron. He found it in a young nobleman, the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his poems. When the theatres reopened, Shakespeare became a shareholder and the main playwright of the most successful company of actors in London: The Lord Chamberlain’s Men. In 1599 his company built the Globe Theatre, where most of his plays were performed. Between 1590 and 1596 he mainly wrote historical dramas. Overlapping with the history plays, between 1593 and 1600, he put ten comedies onto the stage, ranging from farce to romance. The great tragedies were written between 1595 and 1605. The latter part of his life was spent in retirement in Stratford. He died in 1616 when he was 52 years old and was buried in the local church. Seven years after his death, some of his friends and fellow actors published an edition of thirty-six of his plays in one volume – the famous First Folio. The language Shakespeare was writing at a time before theatre technologies and complex stage design created visual worlds for theatre audiences - he created those worlds through language. He coined new words and phrases that we still use today. Shakespeare the poet Shakespeare's sonnets were published in 1609, although they were probably written in the 1590s. The collection included 154 sonnets in decasyllables. Shakespeare did not use the Italian form, an octave and a sestet; instead, he employed three quatrains and a final couplet (© 3-7). However, the development of the argument in many of his sonnets follows the 'two-poem' structure of the Petrarchan form since there is a turning point in the ninth line. The 154 sonnets included in the 1609 publication were not necessarily chronological, as there is good reason to believe from their style, method and content. Shakespeare sonnets can be divided into 3 groups: - The first 126 sonnets are addressed to Fair Youth an unnamed young man; - the next 26 sonnets are dedicated to a Dark Lady, a mysterious lad whom the poet loved at first passionately and later because of her faithfulness; - the last two sonnets deal with stories of Cupid and the loss of his “brand” thus playing with the erotic theme. Though inspired by Petrarchan conventions Shakespeare violated many rules of the traditions of Petrarchan love sonnets: - He addressed many of his love sonnets to a young man rather than to a woman - He described his dark lady in realistic and flattering terms rather than idealizing her - He spoke not only about love but also discussed human and social evils; commented on political events; parodied beauty; played with gender roles and spoke overtly about sex. 15 2. Tragedies and Romances Tragedies Shakespeare's tragedies are considered his major achievement. They differ from comedy in its more intense degree of suffering and evil, its more fully develop protagonists, the higher social class of its major characters and its extended use of blank verse. Moreover, it presents unresolved endings pushing the spectators to an individual response. Unlike classic heroes whose tragic flaw is determined by fate or a personal error, Shakespeare's are: • modern tragic heroes who choose codes of behavior according to their own conscience, • are victims of unfair circumstances • are responsible for their own misery. Shakespeare's tragedies represent the mirror of the crisis of modernity as they reflect man's uncertainties in a changing world, in its transition from the feudal system to a new word where reality can be interpreted from different perspectives. Shakespeare's tragic production as follows: revenge tragedies; this sub-category is represented by Titus Andronicus (1592-1593). Influenced by the Senecan model Titus Andronicus is Shakespeare's first tragedy and his bloodiest one where revenge is a structuring principle and atrocities The most important themes of Romeo and Juliet: • Love • Fate • Eros and Thanatos: the final suicide of the two lovers whose bodies are United only in Death is emblematic of the paradoxical identification of Eros and Thanatos Ø Ø Historical tragedies / Roman plays: Their main source is Plutarch's parallel lives. They deal with Roman history and present a more pessimistic mood than the English history plays. Even though the private dimension of historical characters is a main concern, political issues and the crisis within the state are given greater attention than in the great tragedies. • Julius Caesar (1598-1599) It explores the declining moments of the Roman Republic before the Outbreak of the Civil War which transformed it into an Empire. Despite the title of the play, the tragedy focuses on Brutus and his psychological conflict about the rights and wrongs of political action. Brutus is a modern tragic hero anticipating Hamlet. • Antony and Cleopatra (1606-1607) The play represents a sequel to Julius Caesar is it resumes the power conflict within the Roman empire showed through the imperialistic logic of the triumvirs Octavious Caesar Antony and Lepidus. The tragedy shows the clash between Rome, the land of political reason and heroic deeds, and an Egypt, the place of lust, perversion and treachery. Then the focus shifts toward a private dimension represented by the love between Antony and Cleopatra. Their blind passion leads them to their downfall and tragic death caused by an inner conflict between love and power. • Coriolanus Great tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. Ø - Hamlet (1600-1601) The play is based on the Historia of Danica by Saxo Grammaticus (12th century) a revenge tragedy probably written by Thomas Kyd and acted in 1594. Dramatic structure: Hamlet follows some of the traditional conventions of revenge tragedy, such as the themes of revenge, murder and madness; the presence of gas who earns the protagonist to 16 avenge a crime against someone close to him. The play -Within -the play device as a measure means through which the villain can observe his own sin. Themes: • Doubt (Hamlet is the emblem of the modern tragic hero who questions and doubts everything, is it is impossible to have her certainties in an elusive reality where the boundaries between truth and falseness, being and seeming are blurred). • Death (after his father's murder, Hamlet is obsessed with the idea of death). • Politics • Oedipus complex • Misogyny • Revenge - Othello (1604) The first act presents itself as a comedy in its depiction of romantic love and the Secret marriage between Othello and Desdemona who proves to be the typical, comic heroine ready to face Society and conventions in the name of her love. The tragedy begins in Act II when Othello is gradually caught in Iago’s treacherous plot. Themes: • Jealousy • race: Othello is black skinned foreigner in Venice • sexuality • gender • manipulation: Othello and Iago are a master of deception - King Lear (1605- 1606) It is a tragedy about the conflict between power and loyalty, violence and love truth and falseness. - Macbeth (1605- 1606) The tragedy shows the psychological conflict of the hero, Macbeth torn between God's conscience and ambition, loyalty and evil, regret and corruption. Romances At the end of his dramatic career Shakespeare at a set of plays that are referred to as romances. They are also called tragicomedies; a new kind of hybrid plays which represent the anxieties of the tragedies but end happily through a surprising turn of events. Shakespeare ‘s romances include: • Pericles (1607-08) • Cymbeline (1607-1610) • The Winter's Tale • • The Tempest (1611) The tempest is Shakespeare's most famous romance. The action is set on an island (unity of place) and last less than 4 hours (unity of time). The unity of action is not respected all together as the play shows several subplots unfolding in different dramatic genres: tragedy acted by the aristocratic characters Alonso, Antonio and Sebastian; romantic comedy with Ferdinand and Miranda; farce with Caliban, Trinculo and Stephano; masque directed by Prospero and acted by Ariel. 17 IN-DEPTH: Romeo and Juliet (1594–96) The setting is Verona, where two families, the Montagues and the Capulets, are locked in a violent feud. First Act. The first act covers a whole day and it opens in a street in Verona. This act is composed of a series of dialogues about the courtly concept of love, which was linked to melancholy, holy devotion and the idealisation of the object of desire. It ends with the scene of the masque and the meeting of the main characters, Romeo, the son of Lord Montague, and Juliet, Lord Capulet’s daughter. Second Act. The second act concentrates on the development of the relationship between Romeo and Juliet. The dialogue between the two lovers deals with the theme of love in a way that departs from courtly conventions, especially in Juliet’s language. This act ends with the secret wedding of the two lovers in the chapel by the friendly priest, Friar Laurence. Third Act. The pace of events increases. It is the longest act and can be divided into two parts: that of public events, full of action and movement, and the part devoted to private events. Mercutio, Romeo’s friend, is killed by Tybalt, Juliet’s cousin, during a street fight. In revenge Romeo kills Tybalt and is banished from Verona to Mantua. The act ends with Romeo and Juliet’s wedding night at the Capulets’ house. Fourth Act. It is the preparatory act to the final tragedy. To avoid her marriage to Count Paris organised by her father, Juliet takes a drug given to her by Friar Laurence. This potion makes her seem dead. The friar sends a messenger to Mantua, but before he arrives, Romeo is told that Juliet is dead and decides to come back to Verona. Fifth Act. The fifth act consists of three scenes. The first breaks the unity of place, moving from Verona to Mantua. In the last scene Romeo poisons himself after seeing Juliet apparently dead in the tomb, while Juliet, waking from her trance, sees Romeo dead and stabs herself with his dagger. Unlike most Shakespearean heroes, Romeo and Juliet will never know the truth about their death. The most relevant themes are: Ø Magic: the play explores different aspects of Magic showing the distinction between white and black magic, that is between science and sorcery. The nature leading to the control of his forces and theatrical illusion; black nature leading to the control of its forces Black magic is instead summoned up in the figure of the witch Sycorax ,the perverse and devilish principle in nature, progenitor of Monsters Ø Power: The issue of authority and power is a recurring one in Shakespeare's plays The Tempest explores the double nature of power in the figure of Prospero as a divine right, self -created through art and self-knowledges and as inheritance in Caliban's whose claim to the island derives from his mother. Ø nurture against nature: The play shows the opposition between nurture (civilization and education) and nature (the natural state of man). In his essay on cannibals Montaigne created the myth of the noble Savage bass on the idea of the nature Goodness and Innocence of uncivilized people. The relation of Master and servant, European and native representing by Prospero and Caliban, is modelled on the colonial experience based on the ideology that it was the duty of the colonizers to educate and civilize the savages. Yet Prospero’s attempt to civilize Caliban has only succeeded in corrupting him, as he has only learnt how to curse his invader and usurper. 20 Comment: The opening scene of the play introduces the three witches. They are vital poetic symbols in the play, essential manifestations of the moral atmosphere of Macbeth’s world. The Tempest (1611) First Act. The play begins with a tempest near an enchanted island. Shipwrecked, Alonso, King of Naples, his son Ferdinand, Antonio, Duke of Milan, and their court are magically washed up on this island. This is all the plan of Prospero, a magician who lives on the island with his daughter Miranda. He explains to her that he was the rightful duke of Milan who, being devoted more to the study of philosophy and magic than to affairs of state, was deposed twelve years earlier and set adrift with her on a boat on the orders of his brother Antonio. They finally reached an island which had been the refuge of the witch Sycorax and was inhabited by her son Caliban, a strange creature of brute intelligence, and Ariel, a gentle spirit of the air whom Sycorax had imprisoned. Prospero released Ariel and made him his agent. Second Act. King Alonso is desperate because he thinks his son has drowned. Ferdinand, instead, is wandering all over the island, moved by Ariel’s singing; he meets Miranda and falls in love with her. Third Act. To test Ferdinand, Prospero makes him perform menial tasks. Caliban meets Trinculo, the king’s jester, and Stephano, the royal butler, and they plan to kill Prospero. Ariel hears them and reports the plan to Prospero. Fourth Act. It is a sort of interlude to entertain Miranda and Ferdinand while Prospero completes his plans of reward and punishment. Fifth Act. The play ends in an atmosphere of general reconciliation: Miranda and Ferdinand marry, Prospero forgives his brother and returns to Milan to take possession of his lost dukedom (I4.9). Caliban is left alone on the island and Ariel is released, free to wander as he wishes. 21 Themes The Tempest belongs to the last period of Shakespeare’s work and it is characterised by a ‘serenity’ which casts sweetness and light over human relations. Shakespeare seems much more concerned with human destiny as a whole rather than with individual peculiarities, more eager to show that good may come of evil. There is, in fact, no tragic ending: not only are the criminals prevented from causing death, but they are forgiven. Forgiveness seems to be one of the main themes: all ends in peace and reconciliation, with music intensifying the atmosphere of enchantment. Miranda is not a suffering heroine; she embodies womanly perfection through her ethereal beauty and unspoilt innocence. There is another element in the play that was certainly of great interest for the contemporary audience: the wild, exotic setting, the relationship between natives and invaders, the problem of forced labour and the traffic in liquor. However, the most interesting theme of the play is certainly the ‘element of magic’ and its representation as ‘theatrical illusion’. There are two types of magic in the play: maleficent and beneficent. The former, that of the witch Sycorax, tends to work evil on its victims and is usually the result of a pact with the devil. The latter, that of Prospero, derives from study and is used only for good purposes. The attributes of magic used by Prospero are his books, which are his chief power and represent his supernatural knowledge; his robe, which he puts on when he is working as a magician and takes off when he is an ordinary man; and his wand, which represents his instrument of power. A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1594–96) The story consists of four plots with four groups of characters: - Theseus, Duke of Athens and Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, whose marriage provides the frame to the whole play; - Four Athenian lovers, whose happiness is finally made possible; - The Fairies, who are essential mythological figures in the celebration of nuptials, and who become real characters here; - The mechanicals, Athenian workmen, who rehearse the play Pyramus and Thisbe which they will perform at the celebration of the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta. A Midsummer Night's Dream is a comedy play written by Shakespearean about 1595 or 1596. The play is set in Athens, and consists of several subplots that revolve around the marriage of Theseus and Hippolyta. One subplot involves a conflict among four Athenian lovers. Another follows a group of six amateur actors rehearsing the play which they are to perform before the wedding. Both groups find themselves in a forest inhabited by fairies who manipulate the humans and are engaged in their own domestic intrigue. A Midsummer Night's Dream is considered one of Shakespeare's most popular and widely performed plays Themes In A Midsummer Night’s Dream Shakespeare confronts the separation between reality and what one perceives to be real. This is examined in the adventures of the Athenian lovers, in Titania’s interactions with Nick Bottom and in Puck’s closing monologue. Shakespeare forces us to think: What is reality? Who can tell how much of what is felt is real and how much is brought about by the juice of the flower? What about the feelings that were brought to light by the fairies’ influence? The final question on reality is Puck’s ending speech. He calls the actors ‘shadows’, which questions how real they truly are. Not only are they playing roles and pretending to be other people, but how real are they? How real is anyone, really? Puck’s words underline how easy it is to alter one’s perception of things. But if one’s perceptions are so easily 22 changed, what is the difference between dreaming and reality? In showing how love can dramatically alter perceptions in Titania and Bottom’s story, by showing how changeable the sentiments of the Athenians were and by openly questioning how real reality is in Puck’s speech, Shakespeare challenges us to question how much of what people see and feel is real. Comment: Oberon, King of the Fairies, knows a special flower whose juice, when placed on sleeping eyelids, will allow the person to wake up and fall in love with the first thing they see. Puck leaves to find the flower, while Oberon admits that he will use the juice on Titania. Hamlet (1600-1601) Itis a tragedy that unfolds in the Kingdom of Denmark, following the Prince of Denmark, Hamlet. The play opens with the ghost of Hamlet's father, the late King, appearing to Hamlet and revealing that he was murdered by Hamlet's uncle, Claudius, who has since become king by marrying Hamlet's mother, Queen Gertrude. Consumed by grief and a desire for revenge, Hamlet grapples with his conflicting emotions and moral dilemmas. As he seeks to uncover the truth and avenge his father's murder, Hamlet feigns madness, leading to a series of tragic events, betrayals, and deaths. The play explores themes of betrayal, revenge, mortality, madness, and the complexities of human nature, culminating in a dramatic duel that seals the fate of the major characters. Themes A profound exploration of the complexities of human nature, moral ambiguity, and the effects of indecision and revenge. At its core, the play delves into the psychological depths of its titular protagonist, Hamlet, who grapples with existential questions, moral dilemmas, and the burden of avenging his father's murder. Hamlet's internal conflict and indecision are central to the play's narrative, as he struggles with the weight of his responsibilities and the consequences of his actions. Furthermore, "Hamlet" examines the themes of betrayal, loyalty, madness, and mortality, showcasing the inherent flaws and vulnerabilities of its characters. The relationships between characters, particularly the intricate dynamics within the royal family of Denmark, reflect the complexities of power, authority, and deception. The play's haunting soliloquies, such as Hamlet's famous "To be or not to be" speech, illuminate the character's inner turmoil and philosophical contemplations on life, death, and the nature of existence. 25 aftermath delves into the moral dilemmas and political turmoil surrounding the rise and fall of political leaders. At its core, "Julius Caesar" examines the consequences of political upheaval, personal ambition, and conflicting loyalties in a society on the brink of chaos. The characters of Brutus, Cassius, Mark Antony, and Octavius navigate treacherous political waters, grappling with questions of honor, duty, and the greater good in a world driven by power and ambition. Moreover, the play's exploration of friendship, betrayal, and the dynamics of power illuminates the complexities of human relationships and the moral dilemmas that arise when personal loyalties clash with political allegiances. Through its depiction of political intrigue, manipulation, and moral ambiguity, "Julius Caesar" offers a nuanced portrait of the complexities of leadership and the consequences of betrayal and honor in the pursuit of power. Twelfth Night (1601-1602) It is a romantic comedy that centers on the twins Viola and Sebastian, who are separated in a shipwreck. Viola, disguised as a man named Cesario, serves Duke Orsino and becomes entangled in a complex love triangle involving the noblewoman Olivia, who falls for Cesario. The play explores themes of love, disguise, gender roles, and the fluidity of identity, leading to comedic misunderstandings and romantic entanglements. Through mistaken identities, witty wordplay, and whimsical subplots, "Twelfth Night" navigates the complexities of love and desire, while celebrating the transformative power of love and the joy of reconciliation and self- discovery. Themes "Twelfth Night" is a romantic comedy that delves into themes of love, disguise, gender roles, and the transformative power of identity. The play's interweaving storylines, centered around the twins Viola and Sebastian, explore the complexities of romantic entanglements, mistaken identities, and the fluidity of human relationships. At its core, "Twelfth Night" navigates the nuances of love and desire through witty wordplay, comedic misunderstandings, and whimsical subplots. The character of Viola/Cesario captures the essence of gender ambiguity and the complexities of self-discovery, as she navigates the societal expectations and romantic entanglements that shape her experiences in the play. Moreover, "Twelfth Night" celebrates the joy of reconciliation, forgiveness, and self-discovery, as characters like Viola, Orsino, Olivia, and Malvolio find redemption and love amidst the confusion and chaos of mistaken identities and romantic entanglements. The play's exploration of love, desire, and the transformative power of human connections offers a lighthearted yet profound reflection on the complexities of relationships and the enduring power of love and forgiveness. The Arts Shakespeare's plays in painting host, 1793 ma, Italy Henry Fuseli, Titania, Bottom and the Fairies, 1793-94. Kunsthaus Zùrich, Zurich, Switzerland. 26