Scarica Schemi e riassunti del libro Translation practices di Jorge Dias Cintas e Aline Remael. e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! Translation practices Subtitles can be divided into 2 categories according to their lexical density:  Edited Subtitles: the most commonly used and consumed. Subjected to spatiotemporal constraints. (ex. pre-prepared interlingual)  Verbatim Subtitles: full literal transcription or translation of the spoken words  push the reading speed to uncomfortable levels. Supported by hearing – impaired viewers uncomfortable levels (ex. SDH) Cumulative subtitles: when chunks of speech appear in the same subtitle but not at the same time. Each part of the text pops-up at a different time, in sync with its speaker. They disappear simultaneously. Used to: - Convey dramatic effect - Deliver jokes - Avoid advancing info (quizzes) - Adhere the rhythm of a song Roll-up subtitles: appear as a constant flow of text. Usually displayed word by word or in blocks of short phrases. Disliked for their instability and upward movement. It has been a favoured mode for live subtitling in Anglo-Saxon countries. From a technical perspective we can identify 2 types of subtitles: 1. Open: irreversibly burned or projected onto the image. The avt programme and the subtitles cannot be separated from each other, so the subt. are always visible. Ex. forced narrative subtitles = convey necessary info to comprehend the text (foreign languages or comedic effect) 2. Closed or pre-rendered: separate video frames overlaid on the original. They can be turned on and off and it is possible to have multiple languages subt. Methods of projection: Laser: Introduced in the ‘80s but doomed to disappear. Reliable and effective: it enhances contrast and legibility. It takes a long time as the subtitles are engraved on the images using a laser ray, so they become integral part of the film copy. Electronic: more economical than laser, subtitles are superimposed on screen using a timecode system instead of being hardcoded onto the movie. It allows versatility of projection (modifications, ecc.) and ensure the safeguard of the copy. It is the preferred mode for film festivals, television, DVD and cinema. 3D: the challenge is positioning the subt. so as they don’t interfere with the images on screen: a particular method allows the subtitle to float in front of the 3D image creating the feeling of depth. Distribution: The main media used for the distribution of AVT texts were: cinema, VHS, DVD, Blu- ray, Television, Internet. Today the panorama has changed  Netflix and Amazon Prime (different sets subtitles). Cinema: tends to respect shot changes more strictly and use shorter lines than other media. Cinema illusion is based on a succession of 24 frames per second  TV is based on 25 frames per second < process of telecine Dialogue list: Supplied by the film producer or distributor, it is the accurate compilation of all the dialogues exchanges, a key document that facilitates the task of the translator, helping to avoid potential comprehension mistakes. It can also provide extra info on implicit socio-cultural connotations through explanatory notes (allusions, plays on words, explanations about dialectal terms, ecc.). They are rare in the industry but free access has improved. Guidelines: Subtitlers may receive a style guide in which the parameters to be applied in the subtitles are made explicit (examples of problem strategies, norms, ecc.). Many companies produce their own guidelines for internal use but service providers like Netflix grant free access to their style guide. Software editors: The first programs designed for the practice of subtitling started being commercialized in the ‘70s. Switchover from analogue to digital technology at the turn of the 21 century = from VHS  DVD  Blue ray  single software  cloud Subtitling programs demand high cost for the purchase of the licence = serious obstacle for the freelancer  versions with more flexible licensing terms are also available Improved features of software editors: - detect shot changes automatically  save time + accuracy - accuracy of audio sync thanks to the waveform - spell check  linguistic quality and consistency - possibility to lock the time codes  prevent external editing Issues with AVT:  Lack of Avt training in many countries  Many LPs have their main offices abroad (London or LA)  translational decisions are not taken in the country were subtitles will be consumed  Homogenization  tendency to use the same conventions around the world vs domestic practices and traditions  Only a little percentage of the budgets are devoted to translation and access services Deadlines: The whole process of subtitling a full-length film may last 12-15 days, depending on the company and the AV product. Subtitlers working for cinema tend to be allowed more time. In order to meet the short deadlines imposed by DVD/Blue-ray and OTT platform  employing various professionals = lack of cohesion and coherence. Films are multisemiotic text: different modes (aural + visual) cooperate to create potential meaning. These modes are inseparable. Images do not carry universal meaning, they are often culturally determined  subtitler = explain the visually rendered info, verbalize the image  Horizontal communication: between characters  Vertical communication: between the film apparatus and the viewer Dialogues mimick the features of everyday conversation = oralidad prefabricada. The way characters speak reflects their personality, social class and relations  impact on the narrative development. This includes implicatures. Intersemiotic cohesion: it refers to the interaction of different modalities in a text and the way they rely on each other to create a coherent linguistic-visual whole. - how words and expressions are linked to one another - how narration relies on images - the interaction speech-gestures  multimodality of spoken language Multilingual film = a film in which at least 2 or more languages are spoken by one or more characters < translations take place within multilingual entities L1 = regarded as the main language of a ST but a text may have more than one language, all equally important (bilingual film) the European audiovisual sector should reflect society as it is, with its identity and heritage = challenge for the translator. In the past, in Hollywood, linguistic and cultural confrontations were avoided mainly for political reasons and multilingualism was used more as a form of exoticism. Today it fulfils many different functions: - Contributes to the characterization - Foster plot development or twist - Enhance realism Strategies adopted: - Absence of translation (the context must make the dialogue clear to some extent)  mark language diversity (ex. Breaking Bad) - No translation but indication of the language spoken in brackets - Subtitles in italics - Subtitles in colours - Intralingual transcription Max. characters: usually 37 per line including blank spaces (depending also on the font size). TV, DVD and cinema accept up to 37 or 39 characters. Some platforms accept up to 42 characters. In Asian countries the limit is set to 16 characters per line. Time available: at least one second so that the eye can register them, but they should not stay more than 5 or 6 second to avoid re-reading (except songs). It also depends on: the reading speed of the target audience, the delivery pace of the dialogue and the medium (TV = wider audience slower). Two parameters used to measure the subtitles display rate: cps or wps (Ex. in Eng = 5 words per sec.). Blank spaces included or excluded? The debate is still open. A minimum of 2 seconds of pause between subtitles is needed < time to realize new info has been presented  software One-liners: the most widespread approach (when possible) < images are less polluted Two-liners: - Two short lines of similar length  the eyes travel less - Help render the message and the intonation, especially with clauses - The pyramidal structure is favoured for aesthetic reasons (top line shorter) but priority should be given to readability Shot changes: golden rule = avoid overlapping with the subtitles  re-reading Respecting shot changes = challenge with today’s fast moving productions  TV more flexibility than cinema. The out-time may be set either on the shot change or 12 frames before it. Text reduction: 1. Partial  condensation and a more concise rendering of the ST 2. Total  deletion or omission of lexical items Both processes can be at work. Communication = achieving the max. effect with the min. effort. Reduction levels = vary across countries and languages. The co-text and context of the scene are fundamental in decision making. The subtitler must act on the principle of relevance and ask: “Will the viewer still be able to understand the message?” The film should be seen in its entirety before starting to translate, but it is not always possible. Some reduction strategies: - Replace periphrasis with shorter verb forms - Replace enumerations with generalizations - Use of shorter synonyms but they are not equivalent and sometimes they belong to a different register  terminological appropriateness is more important - Use of simple tenses rather than compound tenses  only when possible without producing calques - Changing word class  ex. verb > noun - Abbreviation and contractions < depending on the style of the speaker - Changing the mode of a sentence  negative > positive - Omitting markers of modality  characters = more abrupt and less polite - Direct speech > indirect speech - Changing the order of theme and rheme  to facilitate reading - Long sentences > simpler short sentences - Active > passive (or viceversa) - Use of deictics and pronouns to replace nouns (when the noun is not too far) - Joining sentences - Omitting interpersonal elements (vocatives, false starts, interjections, greetings, ecc.)  depending on the context and the semiotic environment - Omission of clauses with low info load or crowded scenes  priority to crucial info Segmentation: the division of the ST dialogue into segments (subtitles)  important factor in facilitating the reading and comprehension of the text + reinforcement of coherence and cohesion Golden rule: structure subtitles in such a way that they are semantically and syntactically self-contained, they should make sense in themselves (complete sentences, clear structure, no ambiguities). Two ways: 1. Line breaks = sentence distributed on two lines < syntactic and grammar rules 2. Two or more subtitles < limited memory  short sentences, not too many subtitles Rhetorical spotting: it takes into account rhetorical features of language like hesitation, pauses, speech disorders, “disorderly speech” (temporary situation in which the speaker is unable to articulate for some reason). It helps convey suspense, surprise, irony, hesitation, ecc. It is important: - to consider the context of the utterance  whether to omit it or not - follow the rhythm of the speaker  retaining pauses and hesitations Language variation Marked speech: characterized by language features which are not neutral. Intra-speaker variation: variation in the speech of individual speakers, their individual style. Strategies of translation for CRs: 1. Loan / borrowing = the ST word or phrase is incorporated to the TT < both use the same expression (ex. app). 2. Literal translation = a special type of loan that sounds natural (ex. Day of the dead) 3. Calque = a literal translation that sounds odd is employed instead of a more fluent term in the TL  foreignizing effect (consider the impact) 4. Explicitation = introducing info that is present only implicitly in the ST < derived from the context (by specification or addition) 5. Substitution = replacing the cultural reference of the ST with a similar reference of the TC (ex. culinary dishes) 6. Transposition = replacing a cultural concept of a community with another from another community (it also involves some clarifications) 7. Lexical recreation = introduction of a neologism in the TL when the speaker of the ST makes up new words (sometimes between quotation marks) 8. Compensation = adding extra info to one exchange to compensate for other losses in translation or impact on characterization (ex. humour) 9. Omission = applied for space-time limitations but also when the context is clear enough or there is no corresponding term in the TL. Humour It’s a form of communication that relies on a certain degree of common ground between the interlocutors and works on more than one level. It is a social event both universal and culture-bound. It is a double-edged sword = can amuse some people and shock others < often based on stereotypes, prejudices, racism, sexism, ecc. People experience humour because their stress has been relieved by a joke or they are surprised for the juxtaposition of incompatible things (< complementary). Whether something is considered funny depends on many factors: age, sex, mood, context, traditions, ecc.  Verbal humour: relies on the language used to express it.  Referential humour: use language to convey a comical story or event that may be culture-based. Translation strategies for humour: - Identify to what extent humour it is crucial for the narration of the story. - Identify the degree of exoticism - Consider that not all humour can be translated - Consider the importance of the semiotics and the co-text - Globalization may help the translation process - Decide what strategy to use basing on the particular situation: literal translation, explicitation, transposition, substitution, homophones, paronyms, ecc. Some talk about linguistic manipulation:  Technical manipulation < spatiotemporal constraint  Ideological manipulation < a form of interference due to political, religious, sexual, ethical considerations, ecc. A sort of conscious self-censorship or censorship (also after the subtitles are made). It can also be the result of technical manipulation.