Fonetyka teoretyczna po angielsku, Egzaminy z Photoshop

Pobierz Fonetyka teoretyczna po angielsku i więcej Egzaminy w PDF z Photoshop tylko na Docsity! Theoretical phonetics 1. Phonic structure of language and its components. 2. Units of language vs. Units of Speech. 3. Phonetics as a science and its branches. Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible shape: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation to the meaning. Phonetics is subdivided into practical and theoretical. Practical or normative phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. Theoretical phonetics regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without any special attention paid to the historical development of English. Phonetics is itself divided into two major components: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds (i.e. "segments" of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts. The way these elements of the phonetic structure of English function in the process of communication will be the main concern of this course. The description of the phonetic structure of English will be based on the so-called Received pronunciation. Three traditional branches of the subject are generally recognized: 1. articulatory phonetics (артикуляторна фонетика) is the study of the way speech sounds are made ('articulated') by the vocal organs, i.e. it studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds; 2. acoustic phonetics (акустична фонетика) studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear; 3. auditory phonetics (аудитивна фонетика) studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain, i.e. its interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than in the psychological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds – quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here.. The fourth branch – 'functional phonetics' (функціональна фонетика) – is concerned with the range and function of sounds in specific languages. It is typically referred to as phonology. 4. Phonetics and phonology Schools in Phonology There are three schools of thought on the problem of identifying phonemes. The first the so-called morphological (Moscow phonological) school (R.I. Avanesov, V.N. Sidorov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky, and N.F. Yakovlev). The exponents of this school maintain that two different phonemes in different allo-morphs of the same morpheme may be represented on the synchronic level by one and the same sound, which is their common variant and, consequently, one and the same sound may belong to one phoneme in one word and to another phoneme in another word. According to this school of thought, the neutral vowel sound in original should be assigned to the English phoneme /σ/ because this phoneme occurs in the strong po- sition in such word as origin. The second school of thought, originated by L.V. Shcherba, advocates the au- tonomy of the phoneme and its independence from the morpheme. Different allo- morphs of a morpheme may differ from each other on the synchronic level not only in their allophonic, but also in their phonemic composition. According to the Leningrad (Petersburg) phonological school (L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich), speech sounds in a phonologically neutral position belong to that phoneme with whose principal variant they completely or nearly coincide. According to the third school of thought, there exist types of phonemes higher than the unit phoneme. Different linguists call them differently. One of the terms for them introduced by Prague Linguistic Circle, namely by N.S. Trubetzkoy and R. Jacobson, is archiphoneme. According to them, the archiphoneme is a combination of distinctive features common to two phonemes. Thus each of the speech sounds [c], [з] represents the phonemes /c/, /з/. These two phonemes differ from each other only in matter of voice, while both of them possess the other two distinctive features: (1) fore-lingual (2) fricative articulation. 5. Connection of Phonetics 6. Aspects of speech sounds. and the problem of their classification. Speech sounds are 1) produced by man's organs of speech, 2) travel in sound waves, and 3) are perceived by man's hearing mechanism as 4) sounds of language functioning as units capable of differentiating meanings of the words. It follows that speech sounds differ from each other in their physical/acoustic properties, in the way they are produced by the organs of speech and in their features which take The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into two varieties according to their length: a) short vowels and long vowels. A vowel like any sound has physical duration – time which is required for its ar- ticulation. Different scholars attach varying significance to vowel quantity. The approach of D. Jones, an outstanding British phonetician, extends the prin- ciple, underlying phonological relevance of vowel quantity. That means that words in such pairs as [bid] – [bi:d], [sit] – [si:t], [ful] – [fu:d], [′fɒ:wə:d] (foreword) – [′fɔ:wəd] (forward) are distinguished from one another by the opposition of different length, which D. Jones calls chronemes. The difference in quantity is considered to be decisive and the difference in quality (the position of the active organ of speech) is considered to be subordinate to the difference in quantity. According to the point of view of V.A. Vassilyev, English is not a language in which chronemes as separate prosodic phono-logical units can exist. One more articulatory characteristic needs our attention. That is tenseness. It characterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of production of a vow-el. Special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense while historically short vowels are lax. Principles of classification provide the basis for the establishment of the follow-ing distinctive oppositions: 1. Stability of articulation 1.1. monophthongs vs. diphthongs bit - bait, kit - kite, John - join, debt — doubt 1.2. diphthongs vs. diphthongoids bile - bee, boat — boot, raid - rude 2. Position of the tongue 2.1. horizontal movement of the tongue a) front vs. central cab — curb, bed — bird b) back vs. central pull – pearl, cart - curl, call - curl 2.2. vertical movement of the tongue a) close (high) vs. mid-open (mid) bid — bird, week - work b) open (low) vs. mid-open (mid) lark - lurk, call — curl, bard-bird 3. Position of the lips rounded vs. unrounded don — darn, pot - part 8. The articulatory classification of the English consonants. There are consonant phonemes in the English language which can be classified according to the articulating (main) organ into the following types: 1. Labial consonants which are subdivided into: a) bi-labial, i.e. articulated by means of both lips; b) labio-dental - articulated by means of the lower lip with the up-per teeth as the passive organ. 2. Lingual consonants which are subdivided into: a) fore-lingual; b) fron-lingual (or mid-lingual); c) back-lingual. In this group we distinguish: apical, dorsal and cacuminal. Apical consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue which is brought into contact with the teeth or the teeth ridge. Dorsal consonants are articulated by lowering the tip of the tongue (so that it comes into contact with the front lower teeth) while the closure or narrowing of the air passage occurs between the blade of the tongue and the upper teeth. In the articulation of the cacuminal consonants the tip of the tongue is curled back and is usually brought into contact with the teeth ridge and the fore part of the hard palate. 3. Velar consonants are formed by means of a closure or a narrowing between the velum (soft palate) and the back of the tongue, in cases when the velum is active. 4. Uvular consonants are formed by the activity of the uvula. The English consonants form oppositions based on the following principles: 1) The manner of articulation (stops and constrictives). 2) The articulating organ (labial, lingual). 3) The passive speech organ (dental, alveolar, palatal, velar). 4) The shape of narrowing (a narrow slit or round aperture). 5) The presence or absence of voice (voiced and voiceless). 6) The prevalence of noise or musical tone (voiced noises and sonorants). 7) The kind of resonance (oral or nasal). 8) The noise-producing obstacles (single point and double-point). 9) The manner of releasing closure (plosives and affricates). To conclude the chapter we must note that it is the distortion and loss of conso- nants that is particularly aggravating. As J.O'Connor puts it, "the consonants form the bones, the skeleton of English words and give them their basic shape". 9. The functional aspect of speech sounds. The phoneme theory as the basis of phonology 10. Three aspects and three functions of the phoneme. 11. Differences between sounds, phonemes allophones. 12. Types of allophones and main features of the phoneme. 13. Vowel and consonant adjustments in connected speech: coarticulatory phenomena. 14. The syllable as an integral part of the word. Types of syllables in English. 15. The syllable formation theories. The syllable is a complicated phenomenon and like a phoneme it can be studied on four levels - articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional. The complexity of the phenomenon gave rise to many theories. We could start with the so-called expiratory (chest pulse or pressure) theory by R.H. Stetson. This theory is based on the assumption that expiration in speech is a pulsating process and each syllable should correspond to a single expiration. So the number of syllables in an utterance is determined by the number of expirations made in the production of the utterance. This theory was strongly criticized by Russian and foreign linguists. G.P. Torsuyev, for example, wrote that in a phrase a number of words and consequently a number of syllables can be pronounced with a single expi-ration. This fact makes the validity of the theory doubtful. Another theory of syllable put forward by O. Jespersen is generally called the sonority theory. According to O. Jespersen, each sound is characterized by a certain degree of sonority which is understood us acoustic property of a sound that deter- mines its perceptibility. According to V.A. Vassilyev the most serious drawback of this theory is that it fails to explain the actual mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division. Besides, the concept of sonority is not very clearly defined. Further experimental work aimed to description of the syllable resulted in lot of other theories. However the question of articulatory mechanism of syllable in a still an open question in phonetics. We might suppose that this mechanism is similar in all languages and could be regarded as phonetic universal. The tone unit is one of the most important of intonation theory. The interval be- tween the highest and the lowest pitch syllable is called the range of a sence group. The higher the pitch, the wider the range. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone group is called a nuclear tone. It may occur not only in the nucle-us, but extend to the tail terminal tone. Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken without any change of prosodic parameters but intonation functions in various lan- guages in a different way. There is wide agreement among Russian linguists that on perception level intona- tion is a complex, a whole, formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo closely related. Some Russian linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intonation. Neither its material form nor its linguistic function has been thoroughly described. Though speech timbre definitely conveys certain shades of atti-tudinal or emotional meaning there is no good reason to consider it alongside with the three prosodic components of intonation, i.e. pitch, loudness and tempo. Many foreign scholars (A. Gimson, R. Kingdon) restrict the formal definition of intonation to pitch movement alone, though occasionally allowing in variations of loudness as well. According to D. Crystal, the most important prosodic effects are those conveyed by the linguistic use of pitch movement, or melody. It is clearly not possible to restrict the term intonation by the pitch parameters only because generally all the three prosodic parameters function as a whole though in many cases the priori-ty of the pitch parameter is quite evident. 20. The main functions of intonation There is no general agreement about either the number or the headings of the functions of intonation which can be illustrated by the difference in the approach to the subject by some prominent Russian phoneticians. T.M. Nikolayeva names three functions of intonation: delimitating, integrating and semantic. L.K. Tseplitis suggests the semantic, syntactic and stylistic functions the former being the primary and the two latter being the secondary functions. N.V. Cheremisina singles out the following main functions of intonation: communicative, distinctive (or phonological), delimitat-ing, expressive, appellative, aesthetic, integrating. Other Russian and foreign phoneti-cians also display some difference in heading the linguistic functions of intonation. D. Crystal distinguishes the following functions of intonation. • Emotional function's most obvious role is to express attitudinal meaning - sarcasm, surprise, reserve, impatience, delight, shock, anger, interest, and thousands of other semantic nuances. • Grammatical function helps to identify grammatical structure in speech, per- forming a role similar to punctuation. Units such as clause and sentence often depend on intonation for their spoken identity, and several specific contrasts, such as ques-tion/statement, make systematic use of it. • Informational function helps draw attention to what meaning is given and what is new in an utterance. The word carrying the most prominent tone in a contour signals the part of an utterance that the speaker is treating as new information. • Textual function helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere. In radio news-reading, paragraphs of information can be shaped through the use of pitch. In sports commentary, changes in prosody reflect the progress of the action. • Psychological function helps us to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize. Most people would find a sequence of numbers, for example, difficult to recall. The task is made easier by using intonation to chunk the sequence into two units. • Indexical function, along with other prosodic features, is an important marker of personal or social identity. Lawyers, preachers, newscasters, sports commentators, army sergeants, and several other occupations are readily identified through their dis-tinctive prosody. 21. Phonetic and phonological aspects of oral verbal communication discourse. 22. Intonation groups (tune) as a meaningful unit. 23. Constituent parts of an intonation group and their functional loading. 24. Informational style registers. Phonostylistic Invariant Characteristics of it. 25. Suprasegmental Phonetics. Intonation and Prosody. Types of the Prosodic Units. 26. Main modern approaches to the study of intonation. 27. Components of the English intonation pattern. 28. Sentence-stress and types of sentence-stress. Tempo of speech. Rhythm. 29. Peculiarities of the English accent. 30. Cockney as an example of a broad accent of English. 31. Australian English pronunciation. 32. Canadian English pronunciation. 33. New Zealand English pronunciation. 34. General American as the American English Pronunciation standard. 35.Phonetic Styles.