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The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer
Isles. Book III, Chapter 2
The savages having drawn from George Cassen whithe Captain Smith was gone, prosecuting that opportunity they followed him with 300 bow-men conducted by the King of Pamunkey, who in divisions searching the turnings of the river found Robinson and Emry by the fueside; those they shot full of arrows and slew. Then finding the Captain, as is said, that used the savage that was his guide as his shield (three of them being slain and divers others so galled), all the rest would not come near him. Thinking thus to have returned to his boat, regarding them, as he marched, more than his way, [he] slipped up to the middle in an oozy creek and his savage with him, yet dared they not come to him till being near dead with cold he threw away his arms. Then according to their composition they drew him forth and led him to the fire where his men were slain. Diligently they chafed his benumbed limbs. He demanding for their captain, they showed him Openchancanough, King of Pamunkey, to whom he gave a round ivory double compass dial. Much they marveled at the playing of the fly and needle, which theycould see so plainly and yet not touch it because of the glass that covered them. Notwithstanding, within an hour after, they tied him to a tree, and as many as could stand about him prepared to shoot him, but the King holding up the compass in his hand, they all laid down their bows and arrows and in a triumphant manner led him to Orapakaks where he was after their manner kindly feasted and well used. Their order of conducting him was thus: Drawing themselves all in file, the King in the midst had all their pieces and swords borne before him. Captain Smith was led after him by three great savages holding him fastIs by each arm, and on each side six went in file with their arrows nocked. But arriving at the town (which was but only thirty or forty hunting houses made of mats, which they remove as they please, as we our tents), all the women and children staring to behold him, the soldiers first all in file performed the form of a bissom so well as could be, and on each flank, officers as sergeants to see them keep their orders. A good time they continued this exercise and then cast themselves in a ring, dancing in such several postures and singing and yelling out such hellish notes and screeches; being strangely painted, every one had his quiver of arrows and at his back a club, on his arm a fox or an otter's skin or some such matter for his vambrace their heads and shoulders painted red with oil and
Chapter 1
John Smith
pocones mingled together, which scarlet-like color made an exceeding handsome show, his bow in his hand and the skin of a bird with her wings abroad, dried, tied on his head, a piece of copper, a white shell, a long feather with a small rattle growing at the tails of their snakes tied to it, or some such like toy. All this while, Smith and the King stood in the midst, guarded as before is said, and after three dances they all departed. Smith they conducted to a long house where thirty or forty tall fellows did guard him, and ere long more bread and venison was brought him than would have served twenty men. Then they led him to the Youghtanunds, the Mattapanients, the Piankatanks, the Nantaughtacunds, and Onawmanients upon the rivers of Rapahannock and Potomac over all those rivers and back again by divers other several nations to the King's habitation at Parnunkey where they entertained him with most strange and fearful conjuratioas. At last they brought him to Werowocornoco, when was Powhatan, their Emperor. Here more than two hundred of those grim courriers stood wondering at him, as he had been a monster, till Powhatan and his train had put themselves in their greater braveries before a fire upon a seat like a bedstead he sat covered with a great robe made of raccoon skins and all the tails hanging by. On either hand did sit a young wench of sixteen or eighteen years and along on each side [of] the house, two rows of men and behind them as many women, with all their heads and shoulders painted red, many of their heads bedecked with the white down of birds, but every one with something, and a great chain of white beads about their necks. At his entrance before the King, all the people gave a great shout. The Queen of Appomattoc a ppointed to bring him water to wash his hands, and another brought him a bunch of feathers, instead of a towel, to dry them; having feasted him after their best barbarous manner they could, a long, consultation was held but the conclusion was, two great stones were brought, before Powhatan; then as many as could, laid hands on him, dragged him to them, and on them laid his head and being ready with their clubs to beat out his brains, Pocahontas, the King's dearest daughter, when no entreaty could prevail, got his head in her arms and laid her own upon him to save him from death, whereat the Emperor was contented he should live to make him hatchets, and her bells, beads, and copper, for they thought him as well of all occupations as themselves. For the King himself will make his own robes, shoes, bows, arrows, pots; plant, hunt, or do anything so well as the rest.
dijo, y después de tres bailes todos se fueron. A Smith lo condujeron a una casa larga donde treinta o cuarenta hombres altos lo custodiaban, y mucho más pan y venado le fueron traídos de lo que habría servido a veinte hombres. Luego lo llevaron a Youghtanunds, Mattapanients, Piankatanks, Nantaughtacunds, y Onawmanients en los ríos Rapahannock y Potomac sobre todos esos ríos y de nuevo por varios otros pueblos a la habitación del Rey en Parnunkey donde lo entretuvieron con la mayoría conjuros extrañao y temerosos. Por fin lo llevaron a Werowocornoco, cuando estaba Powhatan, su Emperador. Aquí, más de doscientos de esos sombríos mensajeros se preguntaban, como fuera un monstruo, hasta que Powhatan se pusieron en sus bravas más grandes ante un fuego en un asiento como una cama en donde se sentó cubierto con una gran túnica hecha de pieles de mapache con todas las colas colgando. Sobre ambas manos se sentaba una joven moza de dieciséis o dieciocho años y a lo largo de cada lado [de] la casa, dos filas de hombres y detrás de ellas muchas mujeres, con todas sus cabezas y hombros pintados de rojo, muchas de sus cabezas adornadas con el plumón blanco de los pájaros, pero todos con algo, y una gran cadena de hebillas blancas alrededor de sus cuellos. En su entrada ante el rey, todas las personas dieron un gran grito. La reina de Appomattoc fue señalada para traerle agua para lavarse las manos, y otra le llevó un montón de plumas, en lugar de una toalla, para secárselas; habiéndole festejado de la mejor manera que pudieron, se llevó a cabo una larga consulta, pero la conclusión fue traer dos grandes piedras, ante Powhatan; luego todos los que pudieron, le pusieron las manos encima, lo arrastraron hacia ellos, y sobre ellos recostaron su cabeza preparándose con sus bastones para golpear su cerebro, Pocahontas, la hija más querida del rey, cuando no podía prevalecer la súplica, puso su cabeza en sus brazos y depositó la suya sobre él para salvarlo de la muerte, mientras que el Emperador estaba contento de que él viviera para hacerle hachas, y campanas, hebillas y cobre, porque pensaban que él sabía de todas las ocupaciones. Para el mismo el rey hará sus propias ropas, zapatos, arcos, flechas, ollas; Plantar, cazar, o hacer algo al igual que el resto.
Exploratory Questions
Skim the text to get its general sense and try to sum up the plot in two or three sentences. Remember that the plot is what happens to the characters in a story; it is an unfolding series or pattern of events. Captain Smith, after using his guide as a shield, was found and captured by the savages, who had previously killed two of his men and took him near the fire. There, he asked for their captain and the savages showed him the King of Pamunkey. Smith gave him an ivory compass dial and all the savages were marvelled by this object. Afterwards, Smith was eventually conducted to Werowocomoco and presented to their king, Powhatan, who was together with his train; there, he was treated alternatively as an enemy and as a guest (he was submitted to a ritual). Then, he was condemned to death, but Pocahontas, the king’s dearest daughter, prevented her father from executing him, so Powhatan’s final decision was a practical one: that Smith would make tools for him, just like anyone else from the village. Now, scan the text and list the names of the individual people who are mentioned. Next to each name, write down how are these individuals portrayed? Are any of them described or are we only told about the actions they perform? George Cassen: Under torture, he told the bowmen that Captain Smith had gone up to the river. Captain Smith: According to him, the bowmen who had killed Robinson and Emry did not dare to approach him until he was paralyzed with cold in the middle of a small river. After being captured, he offered a dial to Openchancanough and was honoured and well fed. When he was brought into Powhatan’s presence in the village of Werowocomoco, he was submitted to a ritual, in which he felt that his life had been at risk, and after that he remained there making tools for Powhatan. John Robinson and Thomas Emry: captain Smith’s men, who were shot with arrows and slain by the natives, led by Openchancanough. Openchancanough: called “the King of Pamunkey” by John Smith. He conducted 300 bowmen who captured Captain Smith, received a dial from him, and held the captain in custody until he delivered the prisoner to Powhatan. Powhatan: called “the Emperor” by Captain Smith. This Native chief wore a great robe made of raccoon skins. Opossunoquonuske: the Queen of Apomattoc, who was appointed to bring Captain Smith water to wash his hands. Pocahontas: Powhatan King’s dearest daughter, aged sixteen or eighteen. According to Captain Smith’s account, she took his head in her arms and laid her own head upon
to wash and dry his hands. What impression of the Natives does the author try to convey by this alternation of threats and compliments? How do you think Smith’s contemporary readers would have perceived such behavior on the part of his captors? How successful was the author in presenting the Natives as potential betrayers never to be trusted by the English? How reliable does he appear to readers today? The author tried to give the impression that the Natives were moody or temperamental, and totally unpredictable, so that his original audience, the European readers, might easily understand why he was always unsure of his fate. Smith’s contemporary readers probably perceived such behaviour as primitive, extravagant and irrational. The changing attitudes ascribed to Natives reinforced any existing prejudice about their mental instability, unreliability and treacherous nature. This depiction of the Natives helped Smith and other colonizers to justify their actions. However, nowadays most readers tend to question such negative notions about Native Americans, realize their plight, and feel inclined to sympathize with them rather than with the invaders of their territories. Modern readers realize that Smith’s depiction of the Natives is biased and prejudicial based on the ideology of the “Manifest Destiny”, the notion that Europeans should take over the whole American continent. John Smith’s military training allowed him to use technical terms, such as “bissom”, to explain how the warriors were placed. List the weapons that are mentioned and, next to each name, write down any details that the author gives about them (their form and/or how they may be used). By looking at the way the author pays attention to details of warfare, can you point out how he reveals his military background? Arrows: used by the bowmen. Bows: used by the bowmen when they dance. Pieces: the bowmen wear them, but they do not use them in this episode. Swords: the bowmen wear them, but they do not use them in this episode. Quiver of arrows: the bowmen carry them (one per each). Clubs: used by the bowmen to hit Captain Smith. Hatches: handmade by the King. He makes clear that he has a good military background as he explains with detail how the captors organized themselves in terms of movement. Captain Smith knew the names of every single position they made (snakelike formation, etc.).
Why did the author refer to the tribesmen as "soldiers," to their leaders as "sergeants," to the tribal chiefs as "Kings" and to Powhatan as "Emperor" or "King"? Captain Smith did not know the social organization of the Natives precisely, but he used those English words in order to make English readers understand their division and their rank differences. In this way, they would be able to find parallelisms with European hierarchical positions. Captain Smith interspersed his General History with quotations from English translations of classical authors. What is the main function of the quotation from Seneca in the passage above? The main function of this quotation is to reinforce the idea of the Natives seen as demons as they had been previously compared to devils that yell and make hellish notes. The author generally wrote in a self-promoting way in order to establish his own reputation and prided himself on knowing how to manage the Indians. By scanning the text, can you find any actions performed by Captain Smith that proved to be decisive in saving his life? In general terms, how did he depict himself? Smith constructs himself as a brave hero with knight-like traits. Among the decisive actions, he says that he performed to save his life. He kills three of his attackers and wounds many others before he slipped into the middle of a creek. He emphasizes his captors’ fear of him and declares that they did not attack him until he was too cold to defend himself. He treats his captors in a proud and demanding way asking for their captain. According with his rank, he is kindly treated and very well feed. In short, although Smith represents himself as a courageous and proud hero, readers may consider him as a consummated self-promoted, over-confident and exaggeratedly boastful person. Can you find in the passages above any evidence used by Captain Smith to claim that he should not have been blamed for the deaths of the two colonists? Captain John Smith tries make clear that there is nothing he could have done to the deaths of Thomas Emry and John Robinson (they were hung) because himself was captured. While Smith was looking for food, he ordered his men to stay in a barge and wait for his return, but they were ashore and killed when sleeping in a canoe.
fiction. Why do you think that the legend of Pocahontas has achieved the status of a national myth? Comment on the fact that Pocahontas’ gesture has been interpreted as a sign of the Native Americans’ submission to their English conquerors. Pocahontas achieved the status of a national myth because her story has been romanticized and because she was the proof that a Native woman could be assimilated by the European society. Pocahontas was kidnapped by the settlers in 1613, taken to Jamestown and used as a political pawn in negotiation with his father, Powhatan. She married an English man and she was baptized Anglican and converted to Christianity. She was introduced to James I and made a great impression on English society. The veracity of the incident in which Pocahontas saves him from death is still uncertain, because John Smith wrote about it after she was dead. It might be a way of taking advantage of the fame of Powhatan’s daughter in London society at a time when they had to justify the war with the American Natives. After his liberation, Captain Smith became interested in the Natives' languages and ways of life. In the passages above, does he give any hints of his interest in the Natives' customs? Captain Smith does a quite reliable ethnographic account of the Natives customs, after all he lived among them for many years. His descriptions display fascination with the Natives’ attires, ceremonies and weapons. It’s a fantastic source of information but it must be mentioned that this author was a colonizer, so most of his writings aimed to justify his actions. From the passages above, can you reach any conclusions about how Smith viewed contact between the two cultures? Did he perceive the so-called “encounter” as an interaction on equal terms? Bear in mind the basic difference between facts (actual events) and the author’s opinions (viewpoint, personal judgement and interpretation of facts). Captain Smith was impressed by the new culture and he did not understand many of the events that took place during this episode. His amazement comes from the fact that he would never treat them (the Natives) the way they treated him. This means that in Europe, they would not give presents and precious objects to their captives. As a colonial writer, John Smith had to struggle to make his language depict a new world. What linguistic strategies did he use? Note particularly the adaptation of the
current English lexicon and the introduction of new vocabulary, restricted to a number of concrete words derived from Native languages. Captain Smith uses common words to explain easily the new world. He describes the tribesmen as soldiers and officers in a European army to make the readers understand differences in rank among his captors,he draws parallelisms with European hierarchical positions. He also uses technical terms “bissom, arrows, pieces and swords”. All these details of warfare reveal his military background. According to Everett Emerson, Book III of The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles "is characterized by richness and literary integrity, and it is full of incident and character." Discuss this statement. A great part of the 3rd^ book of The General History is about a description of the interaction between the two very different civilizations. A big interest of the sheer survival of the colony. Smith formulates a controversial policy towards the Native Americans. It is clear that he uses force to control the Powhatan despite of The Virginia Company’s requests for a gentler policy toward the natives.
Chapter 2
William Bradford
set their feet on the firm and stable earth, their proper element. And no marvel if they were thus joyful, seeing wise Seneca was so affected with sailing a few miles on the coast of his own Italy, as he affirmed, that he had rather remain twenty years on his way by land than pass by sea to any place in a short time, so tedious and dreadful was the same unto him. But here I cannot but stay and make a pause, and stand half amazed at this poor people’s present condition; and so I think will the reader, too, when he well considers the same. Being thus passed the vast ocean, and a sea of troubles before in their preparation (as may be remembered by that which went before), they had now no friends to welcome them nor inns to entertain or refresh their weatherbeaten bodies; no houses or much less town to repair to, to seek for succour. It is recorded in Scripture as a mercy to the Apostle and his shipwrecked company, that the barbarians showed them no small kindness in refreshing them, but these savage barbarians, when they met with them (as after will appear) were readier to fill their sides full of arrows than otherwise. And for the season it was winter, and they that know the winters of that country know them to be sharp and violent, and subject-to cruel and fierce storms, dangerous to travel to known places, much more to search an unknown coast. Besides, what could they see but a hideous and desolate wilderness, fall of wild beasts and wild men—and what multitudes there might be of them they knew not. Neither could they, as it were, go up to the top of Pisgah to view from this wilderness a more goodly country to feed their hopes; for which way soever they turned their eyes (save upward to the heavens) they could have little solace or content in respect of any outward objects. For summer being done, all things stand upon them with a weatherbeaten face, and the whole country, full of woods and thickets, represented a wild and savage hue. Book ZZ, Chapter XIZ They began now to gather in the small harvest they had, and to fit up their houses and dwellings against winter, being all well recovered in health and strenght and had all things in good plenty. For as some were thus employed in affairs abroad, others were exercised in fishing, aboute cod and bass and other fish, of which they took good store, of which every family had their portion. All the summer there was no want. And now began to come in store of fowl, as winter approached, of which this place did abound when they came first (but afterward decreased by degrees). And besids waterfowl there was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many, besides venison, etc. Besides they had about a peck a meal a week to a person, or now since harvest, Indian corn to that proportion. Which made many afterwards write so largely of their plenty here to their friends in England, which were not feigned but true reports.
De la Plantación de Plymouth
Libro I, Capítulo IX El 6 de septiembre. Estos problemas solventados y ahora todos se compactaron juntos en un solo barco, se lanzaron al mar nuevamente con un viento próspero, que continuó buceando durante varios días, lo que fue un gran estímulo para ellos; sin embargo, muchos se vieron afectados por el mareo. Y no puedo omitir aquí una obra especial de la providencia de Dios. Había un joven orgulloso y muy profano, uno de los marineros, de cuerpo fuerte y capaz, que lo hacía más altanero; Él siempre estaba
salvajes, cuando se reunieron con ellos (como aparecerá después) estaban más dispuestos a llenar sus costados lleno de flechas que de otra manera. Y para la temporada era invierno, y los que conocen los inviernos de ese país saben que son agudos y violentos, y están sujetos a tormentas crueles y feroces, que es peligroso viajar a lugares conocidos, y mucho más para buscar en una costa desconocida. Además, ¿qué podían ver sino un desierto espantoso y desolado, la caída de las bestias salvajes y los hombres salvajes, y qué multitud de ellos podrían no saber de ellos? Tampoco podrían, por así decirlo, subir a la cima de Pisgah para ver desde este desierto un país más bueno para alimentar sus esperanzas; de qué manera, sin embargo, volvieron sus ojos (excepto los cielos) podrían tener poco consuelo o contenido con respecto a cualquier objeto exterior. Para cuando acabó el verano, todas las cosas estaban sobre ellos con una cara desgastada por el clima, y todo el país, lleno de bosques y matorrales, representaba un matiz salvaje. Libro ZZ, Capítulo XIZ Comenzaron ahora a recolectar la pequeña cosecha que tenían, y a equipar sus casas y viviendas contra el invierno, recuperándose bien en salud y fuerza y tenían todas las cosas en abundancia. Como algunos se emplearon en asuntos en el extranjero, otros se ejercitaron en la pesca, sobre el bacalao y otros peces, de los cuales se llevaron buena cuenta y cada familia tenía su parte. Todo el verano no hubo ganas. Y ahora comenzaron a almacenar aves de corral a medida que se acercaba el invierno, de las cuales este lugar abundaba cuando llegaron primero (pero luego disminuyó gradualmente). Además de las aves acuáticas había gran cantidad de pavos silvestres, de los cuales se comieron muchos, además del venado, etc. También comieron casi una comida por semana cada persona desde la cosecha de maíz indio. Lo que hizo que muchos más tarde escribieran tan ampliamente de su abundancia aquí a sus amigos en Inglaterra, que no eran informes falsos sino verdaderos.
Exploratory Questions
What effect does the author attempt to have on his readers by using a first person narrative instead of a third person one? Bradford uses in his narrative both the third and the first-person narrator. The use of the first-person narrative is important as it gives a more personal opinion of the events. It engages the narrator in the plot, in fact, Bradford was one of the Pilgrims. He uses it to give his personal opinion and to directly address the reader. He gives the readers a first of hand view of what happened. It is a rhetorical device to bring attention. As an example, he asks the reader to make a pause. He is thinking about future readers. The text has a religious and didactic purpose. Bradford’s main concern as a writer was the relevance of the events, rather than their attractive presentation. John Smith’s History of Virginia is a very different text and one that Bradford would not have looked up to as a model; besides, Smith uses primarily the third person singular. Bradford changes from “they” to “I” when he wants to bring objective events into relation with Scripture or with his own thoughts. The alternation of the third person plural and the first-person singular does not serve the purpose of conveying different points of view. He narrated the story from just one point of view, therefore the readers only know one side of the story. If he had used a third person narrative he would have had to be more objective with the events. How did Bradford interpret the death of the young man aboard the Mayflower? In what sense is this incident an example of God protecting his chosen people? William Bradford interpreted what happened as divine justice. For the Puritans God serves justice because he is in charge of the world and every creature. The young man was a mean person and he had a nasty behaviour so he ended up “paying” for his actions. He died unexpectedly, he was strong and really healthy but suddenly he started feeling very sick and passed away. So for Bradford this episode served as a clear example of divine providence, because God punished him for what he did. The young man is condemned, having no choice to redeem himself. The fate of the young man is presented as a “special work of God’s providence”; his unexpected death had been decreed by God and it serves as an example.
The Pilgrim Fathers, according to Bradford, were soon aware of all the hardships and dangers awaiting them in the new land. Their first thoughts were that they would always succeed if God were on their side. They confront a new wild nature that becomes a potential place to be good with the support that they get from God. What difference did Bradford point out between the "barbarians" that Saint Paul and his followers found in Malta and the "savage barbarians" the Pilgrims found in America? The chief influence on Bradford's writings was the Bible, which he often quoted or paraphrased. For instance, he drew a direct analogy to Saint Paul's shipwreck. According to the author, the plight of the Pilgrims was even worse than that of "the Apostle and his shipwrecked company." (where the inhabitants built a fire for them against the cold and provided them with food and shelter for three months). Bradford and the Pilgrims were not given any kind of food or offered some kind of accommodation, because the Wampanoag had had previous contact with European explorers which sometimes ended in violent disruption of their stable way of life. Bradford asserts that they were attacked by the Natives which contrast with Saint Paul’s arrival in Malta, so the situation of the Pilgrims was worse. Comment on the basic difference which Bradford pointed out between the New World, as seen by the Pilgrims, and Moses's vision of Canaan in Deuteronomy. Bradford regarded the Pilgrims as the new Israelites or "chosen people" and America as "the promised land of Canaan." The term “Pilgrim Fathers” clearly connects with the books of the Old Testament: Israel as the chosen people, the wandering in the desert and the hope of reaching the Promised Land. Puritans dreamed of a “New Jerusalem” where they could be safe, but a basic difference was pointed out by Bradford, Moses could see from the Pisgah the Promised Land in Deuteronomy whereas the Pilgrims’ only source of comfort was looking at the sky and thinking about heaven. The author stresses that the situation of the Pilgrims was worse than any of other related events of the past. From the analysis of the passages read, to what extent do you think that this work is an intentionally ideological document? The preaching of Reverend Clyfton turned William Bradford into Puritan. Of Plymouth Plantation shows the ideologies of the Puritans and the religious fundamentalism that drove these people to get involved in the New World.
In Bradford's diary, a specific ideology is spread throughout the text, "God is on our side", with a Calvinist and puritanical thought narrating a series of events aimed at a purpose: to enhance the spiritual life. If you have faith in God, he will protect you and you will have everything you deserve both in heaven and on Earth. The genre of Puritan history served the useful purpose of enhancing spiritual life by interpreting God’s design, because human history was considered a progress of mankind toward a predetermined end. In other words, history was perceived as a continuum, moving toward a particular outcome, according to God’s plans. Of Plymouth Plantation is not a chronicle(a record of mere deeds or a simple sequence of events), but a history(a series of events with a shape or purpose). This work is an intentionally ideological document. Bradford produced a good example of providentialist historiography because history is perceived as a continuum, moving toward a particular outcome, according to God’s plans. Events are presented as a reflection of God’s will. And because of the author’s reflections of the ways Providence. The author of the history Of Plymouth Plantation declared that he would write in the plain style of biblical simplicity. To what extent do you think that he achieved his goal of directness and simplicity in the passages you have read? The plain style was used by the Puritans with the aim of expressing themselves directly and clearly through ordinary words. The Puritans rejected the high style since it was associated with the church and with the aristocracy. The Puritans were intended not to please, but to instruct and to inform. As expected, William's writing style is mostly a simple, humble and unadorned style focused on informing, instructing and inspiring newer generations to uphold puritanical values. However, throughout the text we bump into some allusions, antithesis or alliterations and figurative language which are part of the rhetorical elements, and therefore, typical of the high style. Puritans officially condemned ornate speech, which they associated with the English aristocracy, and the preachers of the Church of England. Rejecting literary artifice, the English Puritans promoted humble modes of verbal expression that were intended primarily to inform and to instruct, not to please. From the outset, the author of the history Of Plymouth Plantation declared that he would write in the plain style of biblical simplicity. However, being a true Renaissance man, Bradford was familiar with the literary fashions of his day, which abounded in figures of speech of greater or lesser complexity. To what extent is Puritan theology relevant for the analysis of Bradford's writings?
