Chemistry Essentials: Atomic Structure, Bonding, and Organic Chemistry, Study notes of Chemistry

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TOPIC

Atomic

Structure

and

the

PT

Relative Relative

Mass

Charge

Ionsare

positively

/

GCSE

model

Proton

!

negatively

charged

(Bohr's

model)

Neutron O

a toms or molecules

Electron

1"Nat

has le

mass

=

proton

neutron

Isotopes

are

atoms

of

the same element

Z

I

x element

with different

number of neutrons

X

A

·

under

atomic mass

=

proton

Relative

atomic/formula mass-

lowest

/

Weighted

-I

energy

mean mass of an

atom

(formula

unit)

shell

compared

witith the mass

of

an

atom

of

'C

atom

principle

shell

Relative

isotopic

mass

->

mass

of

an atom

1

quantum

number

=

of

an

isotope compared

w/in

the mass

of

an

atom

of

C

n

= 4

MASS

SPECTROMETRY

u

= 3

n

= 2

electromagnet

a

as

S

N

=

negative plate

8

: 2

:

Cattern

disloca

Relative

M

,

=

3

1

= 35.

5

TOPIC

2-Bonding

and

Structure

Ionic

Compounds

two

or more elements

Metallic

bonding

lattice

• and

• chemically

bonded

⑦ e-e-

metal

⑦

cation

e-move

faster

strong

electrostatic

forces of

attraction between

⑦ ⑦

e-seaof a

conducts heat

e-

moves to

⑦ delocalised

electron

other parts

e-

of

metal layers

• can slide - >

more freely

positively

and

negatively

charged

ious

M .

P

.

>

Strong

electrostatic forces

-High

melting/boiling

point

of

attraction between

cations and

u

⑦

①

OQ -Poor conductor

of

electricity

as

solid sea

of

e

Requires

ato ey

i

sea

of delocalise

positions

in the

giant

=

#O

-Good e-conductor when

molten

or

aq

·

Ye =

YEFOA

= Ym . p

.

brittleness

repulsion

when

like

charges aligh

mal

kQ

,

Q

13

• &

F

=

i

X

T

z

↑ ionic charge

Nionic

radii

catdt-1/2-inode

etron density

no

overlaps

Bene

↑EFOA

NEFOA

I

↑m .

p

. /b. p

.

↑ shell

I

Tonic

charge

Nat

<

Mg

< Al

same

of e-

X

2

• I

CrOpCrOn

>

↑charge

=

more

oppositely

Cu charged

migration

of ion Higher

charge density

= Fionic attraction

lovalent

Bonding

ot

it is

⑭

solubility

Ionic radius

4

F

> Cl

NF

=

Usolubility

larger

radius

=

charge

more

spread

strong

electrostatic forces

of

attraction

out

due to SA-Iradius

=

Nattraction

between

two

nuclei

and shared

Ionic radius

·

a

pairs

of e-

⑳

⑧

Lit

Nat-k

• >

Rbt 1st more

shell

,

ion sizet NSA Sig

O

Hy

Tbond

D

• H H

T

C-

O

&

N

> 02 F

+Nat+

Mg-

> Ap

isoelectronic

• C

Siz

H H

SP

&

ethene SP

h

Cf

~

more

protons

attracting

,

same # of e-

0

e attract more

strongly

tradius

as #

protons

Polarisatio-

>

ability

for cation to

distort anion cloud

Dative covalent

bond

polarising

power

of

cation

polarisation

of

anion Pairs

of electron

coming

solely

from one

ionic

Tcharge

radii

O

O

charge

Pradii

atom for

bonding

Al

-"

xy

,

covalent

&

2t

Nat

< Ca O

F

C) -

#H-H

↑ p

.

p

.

Toverlap

Cl c

-note

Apolarisation

= vionic

O

000

00

HzOt

AlCIy

(AlzCIs)

covalent

polar

conic

Bond

strength

CEO

CO

covalent

polar

pure

iunic

more

polarisation

Bond

strength

is the

energy

required

to

G

break one

mole

of

a

particular

covalent

bond in

gaseous

state.

⑭

⑮

I'ans'

rules

=

a) Bond

strength t

as

bond

length

↓

⑭

sp

>

spa

>

S

S-character

= closer to nucleus

C-C C

=

(C=C bond

strength

Intermolecular Force

TEN

,

Abond

polarity

=

Abond

strength

weak attractive forces between small

dipoles

If

fatomic

radius ,

more

shielding

in

different molecules

= weaker

attraction between es and 3

Forces

:

strongest

bonds

> I& C bonds

nucleus

= ↓bond

strength

London Forces

(induced

dipole)

weakest

IMF

Bond

length

Only

forces

of attraction

in

non-polar

molecules

As

Yatomic

radii

,

bond

length

Instantaneous

dipole-

dipole

due to

More

bond

multiples

,

bond

lengtht

as

movement

of

e-in an

atom

induced

there

is aNelectron

density

=

force

⑱

Sts .

....

• repelled

of attraction

between e-and nuclei

can

happen

Ye

=

↑fluctuation

in

e-density

Covalent structures

in

atoms

=

finduced

dipole

=

↑

London Forces

B .

P.

Giant covalent

Many

strong

covalent

e.

g.

CH

<

Sity

<

Getty

<

SnHy

C

bonds

which require

a

I

Diamond

lot of

energy

to

break

>

Shape

and

size

of molecules +

point

of

contact

c

Ea High

M.P.

/B.

P .

between molecules

=

ELondon

Forces

weak

forces

Graphite

of attractions

Conducts

electricity G

k

spherical

Y

↑

> - > delocalised e

from

C

C

in carbon atoms can

elongated

↓

SA

: ↓London

• => e=

I [

i

>

flow

freely

&

[iet

• >

layers

can

slide

↑ SA.. Mondon

I

graphene

For Alkanes

,

as

Mr

Y

,

e-

,: dipolest

Simple

covalent

As

length

of C chain

#of

points

of

weak intermolecular

forces

• > Low M.

P

. /B.

P .

00-

↓

contact

between

adjacent

moleculest = ↑London

require

little

energy

to break

More branc

hing

points

of

contact

,

Electronegativity

cannot be

packed

so

closely

=

↓

London

>

ability

of an atom to

attract a shared

pair

Formation

of

London

Force

of

electrons

in a covalent bond

>

emoves around in a

molecule

freely

Nuclear

charge

Shielding

• >

at

any

one instant

,

there

will be a

temporary

F > (1 > 0

> N

tradii

-I

shells

dipole

on the

molecule which

induces a

dipole

protons

,

>

:

Forces

of shipingT

"shell

NAN

between shared

pair

on

another

molecule

↓

v

radii

--

T

and nucleus

• >

>

opposite

charges

attract

,

London forces form

↑ nuclear

charge

= ↑ #

protons

=

↑ attraction

Permanent

Dipole

Dipole

force

↓

EN

TEN

c ,

S-

symmetrical

weak attractive

force

between

permanent dipoles

S- 1s+

and

have

St

XYX

C

polar

bonds S

S- St

S-

H- YXCl

· ⑳

S-

&

⑳

⑳

asymmetrical

*Y

CI

H

:

C

...

H

=

C

equal

in

permanent

electronegativity dipole non-polar

S- asymmetrical

Has both dipole-dipole

more

• YyEN O

=

Clos

AND

London forces

"E

polar non-polar

ENci ENH

FinT

O

TOPIC

3-Redox

I

2

Oxidising

and

reducing agents is ↓

Oxidation

Reduction

1G

gets

reduced

gets

Oxidised

> addition

of

O

>

removal

of

O

Oxidising

agents

:

02 ,

F ,

Cl , HNOz :

2Mg

02

=

2Mg

(nO

Hz

>

Cu

H C H

/MnO4-

,

Eng)/CrcO

,

"

Caal acidified

>

removal of

He

• >

addition

of

H

Reducing

agents

:

Hz ,

C

,

CO

, HzS

,

Na

,

K

,

So

,

HaS

Cz

S

2HC)

GH

Hz-C2Ho

Fe(NOz's

KzCr

Oxidation

states

:

set of rules Iron

nitrate

Potassium

chromate (1)

C = 0

Mg

= 0

• Uncombined elements

= 0

Hc

= 0 Fz

= 0

PDC

CuzSOy

Ionic

compound

=

charge

on ion

Lead

(iv) Chloride

Copper

(I)

sulphate

Alz0s

• >

(Al

= + 3

,

0

=

Oxidating

state

:

Sg(0)

H2SO4 (+6) HaSc-2)

NazSOs

(

Covalent

assume ionic

,

TEN

=

-re O

.

N.

Co(s)

2Ag

(aq)

> Cot

cag)

LAgus

• Oxidation

H

• >

H

=

1

,

0

= 2

((

>

C

=

• 4

,

C

=

1

(0) (

(

(O)

reduced

oxidation state in

compound

= 0

Al20s

> 2(

3(

=

0((

= 0

5H202MnOi

6H

2Mn

8H

Ions

charge

= sum

of

oxidation

state (

(

Oxidised

(O) (

(

So

6

4(

=

2

NHyt

3

= +

1

reduced

Oxygen

has

oxidation state

of

• 2

always

H

is

an

oxidising

and

reducing agent

except

in

peroxides

(H202)

1

NOTE

:

Precipitation

redox

Hydrogen always

• 1

except

in

metalhydride

(-1)

Range

of

Oxidation

state

4

T

variable oxidation

states

:

metals have

many Group

C N O F

due

to

being

in d-block

, +

4 to - 4 +

5 to

3

6

to - 2

• 7 to

• 1

many

different oxidation states

(many

e to

lose

Hig

hest

:

4

• 5 + 6

• 7

6

3

less

oxidation

number (roman

numeral) is SoTi

V

Cr Mu Fe..

..

used

when

making

an

element HALF

EQUATIONS

Potassium

manganate

(VI)

Reduction

• Oxidation

> Redox

Oxidation

• Loss

of e-OR Toxidation

State

Half

equation

Half

equation

#I #

2

Reduction

• Gainofe- OR

↓

oxidation

state

&

HtMgMg

lol

(0)

(

2)C

2Mg(Y

02(g)

>

2

MgOcs

He

ionic

My

oxidised

,

O

reduced Ba Adde- Add H

then

HzO

lancing

Redox

equations

(

27

Same

element

can

be oxidised

AND

MnOp

>

Mn

• >

MnOx

5e

>

Mn

Balance o

reduced

at

the same

time

MnOx

5

8H

> Mn

4H

and

H

disproportionation

Cr

,

"

>2Cr

⑰

for

alkalil

3CI2a)

GNaOH

laq

Cr

,

0

,

"

be

=2Cr

>

5 NaC((na)

NaCl0z (aq)

3 Hz0(i)

CrcO

14H

>

2Cr

THeO

c

(

Balance CHARGE and ATOMS

>

NatClOz

"O

always

2

• • >

so (l (

C

1. C

e.

g.

H2O

>

H

Aufbauprinciple

Lowest first

before

H2 02

• 2

>

H

filling

higher

levels

·

H

ze

2H"

• >

2H

Hund's

rule-

O

e.

g.

2

SO

> S Paulisexclusion

principle

2

per

orbital

,

opposite

SPIN

2

> S

4H

S

+8Ht TOPIC

4-

Inorganic

Chemistry

and PT

↑factor

> F

=

K

& in

attraction SOx"

• SH

++

Ge

=> S

4H2O Trends in

Group

1 &

2

var

than

Oxidants

(oxidising agents)

First

Ionisation

Energy

Mig) Micg

e-

O

,

Xz

,

Fest

,

MnO

,

CrO

,

F

. I .

E. Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs

shielding

as

↑ shells

purple

> colourless orange - >

green

Reductants

(reducing agents) Second Ionisation

Energy Micg

>

>

Metgs

• e-

Be

more

He

,

CO

,

M

,

Fet

,

ScOg" ,

I'

X

M protons

>

Nuclear

charge

>

Group

1-

, always

it7) (

+2) I

but same

shell

Mn

SH

e

> Mrz

4H

ca

>

orbitals which e are in

removedfrom

n

ativity

E j

• 1S W

More reactive

=

X

> X

e- Ei

M

(a)

> M

(g)

+2e

>

shielding

effect

Atomic mass nuclear

charge

attracts

low M.

P .

In

reactivity

series

:

Mg

> In

> Fe

> Ni F

. I .

E Fet >

In

>

Mg

Because

of

ionisation

energy

,

VI

.

E .

=

Preactivity

P

emelt

i

X

W

~

My

best real

agent

,

Niltbest

ox

agent

Lithium low

density

> caesium

high density

Es

red OX

Similarly,

C

> Br > I

,

l> Br > Ci

Melting

point

decreases

down a

group

more

reactive

as

you

go

xx

Cation

radius

increases down the

group

X

attraction with e- Be

<

Mg<

Ca

G

&

Smore MG

outer shells

Atomic

mass

Fanomaly

isweaker

g is weaker than a

Su

Metal

Oxygen

>

Metal

oxide

(or

a

peroxide

Electrode

potential

to

find

Metal

Chlorine

>

Metal chloride

oxidising

and

reducing

agents

Metal + Water

• >

Metal

hydroxide

hydrogen Oxidants Reductants

·

Litcagi

e- -> Li(s)

• 3 .

83

S

f

in

volts

e .

g. My

with H2O Creats

slowly

as liquid)

prioritises

My

⑧ Flame

&

i

k"cas

• e => k(s)-2. 92

steam ↑

Mg

H20(g

• >

MgO

Hz

=we

i - > &

2

Hingl

+2e =

He (g)

1. 00

MgO

H20c

>

Mg(OH)

z

i

[

(g)

• 2e 2

2

[cag)

0

. 54

Group

1

• 2 oxides are basic oxides

~

Fecgi

2 2F

jaas

87

>

metal oxides

water

> metal

hydroxides

t

Fur

Questions

:

metal

oxide/hydroxide

acid - > salt

hydrogen

Group

2 OH-sOn

less

soluble

= easier to

be

saturated

Mg

least soluble most soluble

1 SOLUBILITY

VERY

Ca

IMPORTANT

Sr

sparingly

e .

g.

XCN

might

not

be

dangerous

Ba

most soluble

least

soluble

it

insoluble

↓

: max

alkalinity

(pH

value)

increases down the

group

Flame

Test

Redox

of

Group

↓attraction

as shells

shielding

e-further

away

Lit

Red

Be

No colour

Oxidising

Power

High-

>

Low

Nat

Orange

Mg

No colour

Halogen

F

Cl

Bra

I

Atz

kt Lilac

Caz

Brick

Red

Halide F-

Cl Br -

I At-

Rb

Red

Violet

Sr

Crimson Red

Reducing

Power Low-

>

High

Cst Blue

Violet

Bazt Pale

Green

2

KBraa

Claca ->2KClaq

Bracal

Cle

can

displace

colourless

green

colorless

orange

Cut Blue-Green +

organic

compound to make

colour

changeBr

obvious

(NOT

REQUIRED)

2 M

.

X

2

>

2 M

,

X

,

Ma

Xz

>

MeXz

NaOH +

Mt

>

MOHe

Natal

Test

for

halide

test

lag) lag

Cust Blue

Al

white

> colourless Add dilute

HNOz

,

then

AgNOz,

then diluted conc.

NHz

cagi

27

Feat Green Ca

white

Ag"

cal

Xiaq)

>

AgXcs)

, Ag(s

2NHy (09)

gHslz

,

Clog

3t

Fe

Brown

Mg

white

F- Cl- But

I'

complex

salt

The

Halogen

S

AgNO

(nq)

soluble white cream

yellow

Grou

,

Room Temp

B

dilute

NHzcaq

soluble soluble insoluble insoluble

m

>

.........

&

cone.

NHy

-

H

:

disproportionation

reaction C

H

Iz

FCI

Bo I

10 I

(

1. C

hypochlorite

F

DeBr C

H

>

HCl

HCl

(chlorate Elion)

EN

radii

&

attraction

E

reactivity

increases

15 Cold

Alkali

:

disproportionation

reaction Cle

20H-

Solutions of

halogens

Czig 20 Hing

>

ClOjagt Clinat

HeO(1)

70 %

Halogens

are

less soluble in

H2O

than

in Hot Alkali

:

disproportionation

3Ck

60H-

organic

(non-polar

) solvent

3

(12(g)

60Hing

03

, caq)

5 Clag)

3H20(1)

Colour

Colour

in

H

Organic

HX

acting

as acids

Chlorate

(V)

ion

F2(g)

Pale Yellow

• HX

He

=

Hz0"

X-

,

NH

HX

>

NHyX

C

2(g)

Yellow-Green Pale Green

Yelow

GreenM

X ~ / conc

. H2SOx

> acid and

oxidising

agent

more less

• >

Brc

(1)

Red-Brown

Orange Red-Orange

H

,

SOncag)-H"cap

HS

lag)

2H

caa)

Son

jag

[

(s)

Grey-Black

Brown

Purple

H2SO

not oxidiser as

[2 (s)

+ I

jaq

>

Is

zagi

CI

low

reducing

12 when

dissolved

in

cyclohexane

is

purple

~

acts

only

as acid

power

C

Reactions

of

halogens

Xc

2

• 2X

~ oxidiser

Cl2 can

react with

P and

Si

,

but

not C

,

O

,

N

C

H2(g)

X2(g)

>

2HX(g)

[FeYag)

Cecaq

>

[Fecag)

2C

jagp

oxidising

Feet

to Fest

works for C

,

Bry

,

but

not

Iz

TOPIC

5

Formulae

,

Equations

and

Amount

of Substance

Types

of

equations

:

Chemical

,

Ionic

,

Half

2 kIcaps

Cl

(ag

>

2KCI(aa)

Iz

laq

cags

Clacaqs

> 2

Cl caas

lag)

21

>

2e-ox .

C

2e

>

2C red

.

Relative

Atomic

Mass

• >

A

Ar

of N

=

14

The

weighted

mean

(average)

mass

of

an

element relative

to in

"the

mass

of an atom of "C

Relative

Molecular Mass-

>

Mr (Formula mass

for

ionic)

Sum

of

all Ar

of all

the

atoms in the molecule

75 %

% 32A =525x3)

=

%

composition

of N in

NHyNOz

:

Mr

= So.

0

N

=

140x2x %=

1. 0 %

A mole

is defined as the amount of

any

substance

that contains the

same

of

< atoms

in

12g

of

*C

Avogadro's

constant

,

L

,

is 6 .

02x

(g)

(mol) (g

mol-

2(a

• 2Ca

mass

= nx Mr

2mol : Imol : 2mol

yield=

actual

Yiel

, 10

2(a +

02

> 2Ca

Use stoichiometric ratio

1. 25

vs 0. 625

• M e

1920 : Ca is

limiting

reagent

0

. 5 0

. 625 0. 5 mol

1. 25 mol

> 0 .5 mol

molar

mass of selected

product

Atom

economy

= 100

X

molar mass

of all product

CaCOz

zNaCl

• >

Os

CaDa

Find

formula

:

m

Fire

mass

of mass of mass of

o

gradient

(ux0 no

2u

=

O

heat

L

Cu

use Mr

Empirical

formula

.

K =

Chemical formula+i

c

find

%

composition

• >

Mr

,

= smallest number

,

ratio

Combustion

:

hyobon

oxygen

• > water +

CO

using

Cand

H

,

we can see whether

hydrocarbon

is

pure

Water

of

Crystallisation

:

MgS0x

·

xH

• >

MgSOn

xH

Core Practical

:

Measuring

mol volume of

gas

• >

species

with a

single unpaired - >

Electron

pair

acceptor

electrophile

Free Radical

Substitution

electron

,

X

:

Electrophilic

Addition

#-

> O

Alkanes

relatively

unreactive

Alkene

X

>

dihalogenoalkane

more

e

> reacts

with

valogen

in

presence

of

UV

H

c

=

c

H

electrophile

Not

permanent

a

dense

S

t

O

Initiation

:

UV

light

energy

break

halogen

bond H

C

H

• >

symmetrical

• C

Cl +

Cl

=

highly

reactive

dipole

is induced

by repulsion

of the

if

U

orange

nomolytic

fission

(one

electron moves

to each

atom)

bonding

e-in the Br-Br

by

it bond

Propagation

:

(H

>

CH

He

H -

c

=

c

& heterolytic

fission

,

Br

• Br - > Br

+But

&

H

carbocation

radical reacts with

CHy

Cl

>

CHzCl

~

I

formed

anything

H

H

H

• 10a

Ratio

·

nation

:

CH

CH3-

>

Cele

newborn

Bust

H

CH

Cl

e-in

bond

LEr5-

: BrO

Termi

3

I

yielded

not

BrS

• • Br

HH

i

h

mires it

↓

products

taken by

pure

OrderGe 1

Alkenes

> unsaturated

hydrocarbon,

CuHzn

COLOURLESS

H

• c -

C

• H

1

,

2-dibromoethane

Hs Pz

formed

De

10H

Br

Br

H-

-H planar

Oc

spi

S

&

C C

s

sp

sp

molecules

C

=

C Osp

OH

Win

j

Alkene + HX

>

Halogenoalkane

I

Pz

St

S-

H

H

Or

• H -

X

• > Hst

will be attracted

to C

= C

c c

High

electron density

⑳

more stable

it -

bond-

>

& no

free rotation -H

Major

< 50 % <50% Minor

H

H

⑦

H

~ ,

I

Positional isomerism

X

= 1

H

2

= 2

x z

H

• C -

H

C

1

CHy

H

-H

CHy

Geometric isomerism

CI/

H

Brs-

it

y

: BrO

i

&

c =

C

H

Stereoisomerism

> same structural formula

,

atoms

have different

Major

& Minor

products

Br

:

Bro

arrangement

I

Cis/trans isomerism

>

same substituent

sati

on

either

side

depend

on

stability

of-

-Br

2-bromopropane 1-bromopropane

E/Z

isomerism

> look at the

highest

atomic

number

the

carbo-cation

Inductive

effect

6

Che

H

• more direction

R

C

CH

I

e'move

=

ye-

C

= V more stable I

H

c

=

H -

c

= c

H

"Oblook

further

a

"o

6

%

"

CH

H

• C - RR

,

CO- R

,

P

Ry

ci /

CI

CHz/

6

R

,

C

-e-

• >

e

ce

trans Cis

e- -

• >

primary

secondary

tertiary >

E

1

, 2-dichloroethene z ,

2-dichloroethene

Eisomer BUT cis isomer

increasing

stability

:

more surface contact

,

so

higher

surface

contact

(stacking)

With

HzSOy ,

it breaks into

He and so

Reactions

:

Reduction

, Halogenation

,

Hydration

Alkene

H

O

Alcohol

H

Alkene

He

• > Alkane

Nicatalyst,

150

H

c

= c

H

• > H

  • C

-H

①

Bra

C

Alkene

Xz

• >

Di-Halogenoalkane

orange

> colourless H

↓ CHy

it

↑

CH

Alkene

HX

>

Halogenoalkane

no

visible

change

from

Acid :

0 St

Alkene

H

> Alcohol

conc. HyPOn ,

300% 65 atm H

H

St

oxidation

H

• c -

G

H

Alkene >

Dio)

acidified

KMnOu

CHz

• H

  c -

c

CH

purple

> colorless

Y

o

O

1

it

↑H

• 10

10

HeO

:

• O-un

%

0

i

X

⑤

OH

the inductive

effect

aliy

group

• -density

H

Y

>

H

H

Il

A

~

W

inductive

·

X

O

W

O

M

I

&

OH [ ⑦ effect

O - Vl

MH

Ho

Mn

,

H Y

11

L

On

Hg

[

⑦ less stable

⑦

= OH

>

Polymers Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

H C

I It

I

Monomer

=

small chain

molecule

that

join c-c-X

Xc- c

• X

together

to make

polymers

and vise versa

it

c

d

M

.P . /B

. P. St

S

Addition

polymerisation

< 11

=

I I

I

joining

monomers

together

to form

long Longer

Cchain

,

more ,

London

dipole-dipole

inbot

S-

BrS-

Leaving

>

S-

leaves

Br

Br Group

8

St fastest

x

>

15

chained

polymers

with

poste

Y

L 7

• Tr

St

weaker

dipole-dipole

due

to +re

inductive effect

Re

u

Nucleophilic

Substitution

Elimination

pair

donor

4 "replacing"

"removing"

polythene

is

split

into

low and

high

Hydrolysis

(with

warm

aqueous

NaOH or

KOH)

density

polylethene)

LDPE

,

HDPE R

X

NaOH

> R -

OH

• NaX

not willing

LDPE

>

bags

HDPE

> milk bottles

: H

H

to

take e

pair

1

Unlikely

H

...

St S- In If

• C Y - c -

X H

• C

  C H - C

~↑

· M ...

I Gi

Hunstable

it

H

stackable

I

⑦

...... &

very

stable

,

can dissolve

in

solution

non-stackable

can be made

from

peroxide

initiations

Warm ethanolic

-> > dissolved

in ethanol KCN

& N

R

• O - 0 - R - R -

0

0

R

R

X

kCN

>

R

• CN

kX

#It

I

R

0

• c

= -

>

R

• o - c-

" st

:

N

Carbon chain

length

=N

I

i it

• c - X

R - 0

C

• 2 +

4 ="

• >

R

0

c

• c -

c

2

Iv

forms

cyano-

,

or nitrile

it

1

is

it is it it

T

not increases rate

3 methods

of

dealing

with waste

polymers

Excess conc

.

ethanolic NHy

at

pressure

in sealed container

L

prevent NH

recycling

• incineration -

biodegradable

R-X

2NH

• >

R-NH2PX

polymers

do not

cracking

energy

s

12

:

NH

rot

• N - H

c x

NHy

=

:

NHz

• >

but

difficult

to a

produce

fus a

I U

H

①

I

C

• N +

NHeX (

NHe

YNHy

(NOT

IN

EXAM)

Condensation

Polymer

I it ethylamine ethylammoniumion

Diol

Dicarboxylic

acid

>

Polymer

H

,

0

NH

1x

• >

outcompetes

more

basic nucleophilic

7 -

S

O

and

nucleophilic

substitution

↓

NHy

n

R

0

H

n

" - R

• ( -

0

H

than

NHz

-No

so excess of

NHy

needed

O

o

ester

G

quaternary

ammonium

11

O

to -

R

• o -

c

• m

-If

2n

4

.

Elimination

with hot ethanolic KOH

Halogenoalkanes

Is-

1

11

C

C-

insoluble in water ,

but soluble in alcohol

(e.

g

. ethanol)

I

repulsion

• > -

c

=

from forming

&

Enthalpy

reasons

:

energy

tractions

from

breaking

interaction the

1s

y y

required

H

good H2O

X

E

Reactive

due to

polar

C-X

bond &

leaving

acting ⑦

as base

:

OH

group

Dehydration

of

alcohols+ elimination

hot

major/minor

PH alkenes

produced

& cour. HzPO

6

• c- 7 -

c

= c

H

B-carbon

180

°

C

I I

Must have 1

C

H

1

1

1

c

c

• • • C -

c

1

HiGH

H

• H

Ht

i

Halogenation

of

alcohols

fumes

nucleophilia ju

substitution

&

RX Warm

Orga

RON

smoke

solid gas

RCI

Phosphorus

chlorides

steamy

fumes

* ROH

PC15c

RC

POCIzat HCkgi

3ROH

PCI

> 3RC

HzPOz

Thiony/

chloride

ROH

SOC

> RC

SO2(g)

H(lig)

> For

tertiary

ROH

,

HCI

@rtp

can

be

used

(Too

slow for 10

,

20

ROH)

RBr

ROH

HBr

> RBr

H2O

&

produced

in situ

:

H2SOp

KBr

>

PBrs/PBry

also works

>

produced

in

situ

RI

3 ROH

PIz(s

> BRI

HyPO

↑

produced

in situ

:

Red

phosphorus

312

Preparation

and

Purification of

a

liquid

organic

compound

:

out

⑪

I

>

distination

2

~

Thermometer

Ir

y

W

T

↑

Ext

liquid

• use B.

P.

to &

determine

whether

drying

agen

a

distillate

is the

desired product

TOPIC T

=

Modern

Analytical

Techniques

I

Mass

Spectrometry

e-

M

> M

e

negative plate

3521

• 3521

3521

,

M

~e-

be

changed

Ionisation

&

0

• >

&

electromagnet

a

,

35x

• 37(

5234

Fragmentation

M+

> X

y

I

• 37

S [It

j

3 :

9 : 6 :,

3C- C

2

81

e

S

Gre

3537707274

&

ionisation-

m/z

ratio

79

Br

: Bu

Mi

.

Mz

> M

,Mat

• >er

mentation

1

:

/

detected

frag

bond

base

peak weakens

hest

I

hig

M

⑭

abundance

M2T

Molecular

ion

greatest

peak

m/z CHzCHzCH2CHzCHyt T

current

flow

,

more abundant

the ion

M

• 1

>

CHzCH2CHz"

CHzCHy

⑦

insignificant

izc

e

.

g.

Methyl propanoate

·_

i

O

1/ 2.

g-

Mclafferty

29t

[]

G Rearrangement

CHzCHCHzCHy

carbocation

stability

Mr

= 88

It

88

⑦ C

• H

Mclafferty

Rearrangement

27

15 M

Ha

primary

TOPIC 9 - Kinetics

I

Rate of Reaction

: The

change

in

concentration

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

↑

an atom ,

molecule or ion in the chemical

reaction

1

of

a

species

divided

by

the time

its takes

for

mode

as

no particles

with OKE

mean

60 start

at 10

,

01

in

the

ChangerourRate

always se is

M

no max KE

,

so

Rate

=

moldm's

asymptote

S

only

molecules

which can

I

E

I

react

carea

= #of

particles

m

Practical

methods

X 3

Kinetic

Energy

I

to find rate of

• • T ,

volume

of

measuring

is 3 .

1

gas

produced

reaction

Temi

I

conc.

Ox

least

mass loss

1 ↓

T

n temp

M

↑ ↑C more particles

rate

=

>

steep hig

↑

T

= ↑ #

of

particles

M

with Ea

R

o-most

steep

gas produced

M

S

&

> time > time

lower and

↓

C

What factors affect rate

of

reaction?

E

num

num to the

um

um

Concentration

• Surface Area 2

Temperature

Are

Ec

> right

remains same

Pressure

Catalyst

Graph

for

NSA

and

↑P same as

of

particles

Kinetic

Theory

model

(collision

theory

remain

the

same

([Pressure for

particles

per

volumes

Particles have to collide

hard

enough

to

.

:

Catalyst

react

. Rate of reaction

depends

of

• M

catalyst

:

M

frequency

and EK

of

particles

colliding

1

1

bond

breaks

He

C

=

C

H H

c = c

um

-H

F

CHG

G

Hy

I

3

c

↑ CH

KE

C

X

steric in X

hindrance

&

H

Br

Heterogenous

> Time

I

(Slows

RoR)

I

Homogenous

Catalyst

• >

catalyst

and reactants

different

Activation

energy

,

Ea Orientation

• >

real

gas

close

are in the same

state

to ideal if

Assumptions

of

model

>

Ideal

Gas +temp, ↓ pressure

Pressure

only

from

colliding

with wall

of

container

.........

poly

Elastic

collision

> Volume

of

particle

neglected

I

there are molecules

binding

to the

catalyst

No

attraction between

molecules

KEargdTk catalyst which

chemically

(successfull

↑Concentration

= ↑ #

of

particles

= ↑

frequent-collisions

deactivates the

catalyst

Pressure

=

↓space

=

/frequent

collisions

absorb

desi

↑ SA

=

↑

surface for collision

=

↑frequent

collisions

↑

Temp

= NKE

=

↑

frequent

collisions

AND

↑particles

Ea

Catalysts

increases RoR

by forming

intermediates

which

requires

a

lower

activation

energy

Fezt w/o

catalyst

e.

g.

ScOs"

21 ->

3

"Ea

1

ScOg"

• [Fe

> 25042

• 2 Fest

↑

Ea

O

un

w/catalyst

2

Feb

21

>

2Fet

↑

G

intermediate

not

used up

Particles

Can

Stillgothrupathway

a fa

>

TOPIC 10

Equilibrium

I [A]

is

concentration in

moldm-

~

Reversible

reaction

• >

go

in both directions kc

=

Products

• >

equilibrium

constant

forward

backward

Dynamic

Equilibrium

movigABForhomogenousequilibriasamet

is

When a

system, equilibrium

is

reached

if

the

unit for

Kc

is (moldm

< +d -

ca+ b)

rate of forward reaction EQUALS

rate

of

backward reaction. Concentrations of

reactants and

products

are

CONSTANT

40 % 60

%

cone -

[A][B] [C][D] vi

=

r

~

time

To

change

the

position

of

equilibri

um

change

temperature

,

pressure

if

gases

are

involved

,

and concentration of

reactants/products

Le

Chatelier's

Principle

If

dynamic equilibrium

is disturbed

by

changing

the

conditions

,

the

position

of

equilibrium

shifts

to

oppose

the

change

[

Temperature

:

A

2B #C

• DWH =

x

KJmol

temperature

,

position

of

equilibrium

will

shift

I

v

increase

to decrease

temp

,

so

position

of

equilibrium

favours

exothermic

forward

the encothermic reaction (backward

reaction

in this

case)

Pressure

:

1 AcgsmoBig)(()

1Dig)

1 mol

↑

pressure , position

of

equilibrium

will shift

to

increase

decrease

pressure

,

so

position

of equilibrium

favours

more

the side with fewer moses of

gas

(forward reactions

Concentration

:

A(g)

Big)

#2((y)

D(g)

↑ concentration of

X

,

equilibrium

shifts to

1 Y

↓

Conc.

of

X

(increase

conc- A ,

more

forward

reaction (

Catalysts

does not

change

position

of

equilibrium

as

it increases

rate of

reaction in both directions

Industrial

processes

maximise

profit

by

reaching

S

yield

a

compromise

of

a reactions

Keficst

and

reversibility

reactions could be reversible

,

unexpected products

could be

produced

or

products

are

lost

For some reactions

:

High

pressure

:

Fyield

,

but

costly

and

requires

a lot

of

energy

Low

temperature

:

Nyield

,

slows RoR dueto↓

collisions

Catalyst

: Prate

,

expensive