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Abnormal Behaviour
What is abnormal psychology? - ✅• Abnormal psychology is the scientific study whose objectives are to describe, explain, predict, and modify behaviors that are considered strange or unusual. What criteria are used to determine normal and abnormal behaviors? - ✅• Nearly all definitions include statistical deviation from some normative standard. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders definition is used by most mental health practitioners. Abnormality is often determined by four criteria: distress, deviance, dysfunction, and dangerousness. How do context, sociopolitical experiences, and cultural differences affect definitions of abnormality? - ✅• Criteria used to define normality or abnormality must be considered in light of community standards and changes over time. What is considered acceptable behavior in urban environments, for example, may not be considered acceptable in rural communities. With the increasing diversity in our society, we have also become very sensitive to how culture and unique group characteristics affect the definition of psychopathology as well. How common are mental disorders? - ✅• Over the course of a year, approximately 25 percent of adults in the United States suffer from mental health problems; the human and economic costs are enormous. In addition, two-thirds of all people suffering from diagnosable mental disorders are not receiving or seeking mental health services. What are some common misconceptions about the mentally disturbed? - ✅• Unfortunately, many myths and stereotypes have emerged regarding people who suffer from mental disorders. Beliefs that mental disorders are inherited, incurable, and the result of a weak will and that those who suffer from them will never contribute to society have caused undue worry and harm to many. The reality is that most people who have mental disorders improve, are little different from those without mental disorders, and go on to lead normal productive lives.
How have explanations of abnormal behaviour changed over time? - ✅(+) Ancient = demonology & attributed abnormal behaviour to evil spirits that inhabited the victim's body. Treatments: trephining, exorcism, and bodily assaults. (+) Rational and scientific explanations of abnormality emerged during the Greco-Roman era. Hippocrates, who believed that abnormal behaviour was due to organic, or biological, causes, such as a dysfunction or disease of the brain. Treatment became more humane. (+) Collapse of the Roman Empire and the increased influence of the church and its emphasis on divine will and the hereafter, rationalist thought was suppressed and belief in the supernatural again flourished. Middle Ages= famine, pestilence, and dynastic wars caused enormous social upheaval. Forms of mass hysteria affected groups of people. IFifteenth century= some of those killed in church endorsed witch hunts were people we would today call mentally ill. (+) The Renaissance = return to rational and scientific inquiry, along with a heightened interest in humanitarian methods of treating the mentally ill. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were a period characterized by reform movements. What were early viewpoints on the causes of mental disorders? - ✅• Nineteenth and twentieth centuries, major medical breakthroughs fostered a belief in the biological roots of mental illness. An especially important discovery of this period was the microorganism that causes general paresis. Scientists believed that they would eventually find organic causes for all mental disorders.
- The uncovering of a relationship between hypnosis and hysteria corroborated the belief that psychological processes could produce emotional disturbances. What are some contemporary trends in abnormal psychology? - ✅Three major contemporary developments have had or are having important influence in the mental health professions: (1) the multicultural psychology movement, (2) positive psychology and optimal human functioning
mental health professional - ✅health care practitioners (such as psychologists, psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses, social workers, or mental health counselors) whose services focus on improving mental health or treating mental illness psychodiagnosis - ✅assessment and description of an individual's psychological symptoms, including inferences about what might be causing the psychological distress treatment plan - ✅a proposed course of therapy, developed collaboratively by a therapist and client, that addresses the client's most distressing mental health symptoms etiology - ✅the cause or causes for a condition Intervening Through Therapy - ✅Group therapy is a widely used form of treatment for many problems, especially those involving interpersonal relationships. In this group session, participants are learning to develop adaptive skills for coping with social problems rather than relying on alcohol or drugs to escape the stresses of life. psychotherapy - ✅a program of systematic intervention with the purpose of improving a client's behavioral, emotional, or cognitive symptoms Clinical psychologist - ✅• Must hold a Ph.D. or a Psy.D.
- Training includes course work in psychopathology, personality, diagnosis, psychological testing, psychotherapy, and human physiology. Counseling psychologist - ✅• Academic and internship requirements are similar to those for a clinical psychologist, but with a focus on life adjustment problems rather than mental illness
Mental health counselor; marriage/ family therapist - ✅• Training usually includes a master's degree in counseling or psychology and many hours of supervised clinical experience. neuropsychologist - ✅• Ph.D.-level specialization focusing on brain-behavior relationships.
- Conducts assessment, diagnosis, treatment planning, and research related to neurological, medical, developmental, or psychiatric conditions. Psychiatrist - ✅• Holds an M.D. degree; can prescribe medication.
- Completes the 4 years of medical school required for an M.D., and an additional 3 or 4 years of training in psychiatry. Psychiatric nurse - ✅• Holds an R.n. degree from a nursing program, plus specialized psychiatric training.
- Some are advanced practice registered nurses (APRns) who have completed master's or doctoral degrees and are allowed to prescribe medication.
- Specializes in the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and evaluation of mental illness. Psychiatric social worker - ✅• Holds a master's degree from a social work graduate program.
- Specializes in assessment, screening, and therapy with high-need clients and outreach to other agencies. School psychologist - ✅• Completes a master's or a doctoral degree in school psychology.
- Specializes in assessing and intervening with the emotional and learning difficulties of students in educational settings. Substance abuse counselor -
(c) is not merely a culturally expected response to common stressors or losses or a reflection of political or religious beliefs that conflict with societal norms. The four major factors involved in judging psycho-pathology are - ✅• distress,
- deviance,
- dysfunction, and
- dangerousness. Distress - ✅(+) social sphere, an individual may become withdrawn and avoid interactions with others or, at the other extreme, may engage in inappropriate or dangerous social interactions. (+) emotional realm, distress might involve extreme or prolonged reactions such as anxiety and depression. (+) physically in conditions such as asthma or hypertension or with symptoms of fatigue, pain, or heart palpitations. Deviance - ✅(+) Abnormal behaviors are those that occur least frequently. (+) abnormal behaviors deviate—or represent a significant deviation from— social norms. (+) examples of unusual behavior include false perceptions of reality (such as hallucinations), (+) Defining symptoms of mental illness can be extremely subjective; decisions about what is normal or abnormal are influenced by the background of the mental health professional evaluating the symptoms and the cultural context (+) However, certain behaviors are considered abnormal in most situations. Personal Dysfunction - ✅(+) we all fulfill a variety of social and occupational roles, such as friend, family member, student, or employee. Emotional problems sometimes interfere with the performance of these roles (+) role dysfunction is often considered when determining if someone has a mental disorder (+) One way to assess dysfunction is to compare someone's performance with the requirements of a role
(+) Dysfunction can also be assessed by comparing an individual's performance with his or her potential. Dangerousness - ✅(+) statistical rarity for individuals who are mentally ill to commit violent crimes (+) Drug and alcohol abuse is much more likely to result in violent behavior than are other kinds of mental illness (+) hallucination - ✅a sensory experience (such as an image, sound, smell, or taste) that seems real but that does not exist outside of the mind culture - ✅the configuration of shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that is transmitted from one generation to another by members of a particular group and symbolized by artifacts, roles, expectations, and institutions cultural relativism - ✅the belief that lifestyles, cultural values, and worldviews affect the expression and definition of mental disorders Cultural universality, - ✅the assumption that a fixed set of mental disorders exists whose manifestations and symptoms are similar across cultures psychiatric epidemiology - ✅the study of the prevalence of mental illness in a society prevalence of a disorder - ✅is the percentage of people in a population who have the disorder during a given interval of time.
Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) - ✅During a time when women were discouraged from political participation, Dorothea Dix, a new england schoolteacher, worked tirelessly as a social reformer to improve the deplorable conditions in which people who were mentally ill were forced to live. Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) - ✅In an 1883 publication, psychiatrist emil Kraepelin proposed that mental disorders could be directly linked to biologically based brain disorders and further proposed a diagnostic classification system for all disorders. biological viewpoint - ✅(+) the belief that mental disorders have a physical or physiological basis (+) Wilhelm Griesinger (1817-1868), a German psychiatrist who believed that all mental disorders had physiological causes (+) Kraepelin outlined a system for classifying mental illnesses based on their physiological causes. That system was the foundation for the diagnostic categories in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), (+) The acceptance of an organic or biological cause for mental disorders was enhanced by medical breakthroughs such as Louis Pasteur's (1822-1895) germ theory of disease. (+) the discovery of the biological basis of general paresis, a degenerative physical and mental disorder associated with late-stage syphilis (a sexually transmitted infection). (+) Richard von Krafft-Ebing, a German neurologist, proved conclusively that the serious mental symptoms associated with general paresis resulted from syphilis bacteria invading the brain. syndromes - ✅certain symptoms that tend to occur regularly in clusters, called. Friedrich Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) - ✅Mesmer's techniques were a forerunner of modern hypnotism. Although highly controversial and ultimately
discredited, Mesmer's efforts stimulated inquiry into the possibility that psychological and emotional factors could cause mental disorders. The Psychological Viewpoint - ✅(+) the belief that mental disorders are caused by psychological and emotional factors rather than biological influences (+) certain types of emotional disorders do not appear to be associated with any obvious biological cause (+) viewpoint—the belief that mental disorders are caused by psychological and emotional factors. (+) personal challenges or interpersonal conflicts can lead to intense feelings of frustration, depression, and anger, which may consequently lead to deteriorating mental health (+) psychological interventions could both produce and treat hysteria, a condition involving physical symptoms that have a psychological rather than a physical cause. Mesmerism and Hypnotism - ✅> unique and exotic techniques to treat hysteria used by Friedrich Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)
Mesmer developed a theory of "animal magnetism" contending that disruptions in the flow of magnetic forces in the body could produce physical problems and that the use of magnetism could restore the flow to normal. mesmerism, a technique that evolved into the modern practice of hypnotism. Mesmer performed his most miraculous cures by treating hysteria, successfully curing symptoms of blindness, deafness, loss of bodily feeling, and paralysis that seemed to have no biological basis. system for curing hysteria involved inducing a sleeplike state, during which his patients became highly susceptible to suggestion. During this state, symptoms often disappeared. committee of prominent thinkers, declared him a fraud. The theory of animal magnetism also became popular in some circles in the United States, despite claims that practitioners were using deliberate deception Mesmer's theatrics and basic assumptions were discredited, he succeeded in demonstrating that the power of suggestion could treat hysteria.
Breuer and Freud - ✅> The idea that psychological processes could produce mental and physical dysfunction soon gained credence among physicians who were using hypnosis.
mental health professionals believe that, as a result, women are more likely to internalize their conflicts whereas men are more likely to externalize and act out Although gender roles have begun to change, their effects continue to be widely felt. Cultural Values and Influences - ✅> Mental health professionals now recognize that types of mental disorders differ from country to country. Within these cultural groups, many believe that physical problems cause emotional distress and that symptoms will disappear as soon as the physical illness is treated. Thus, mental health professionals might hear complaints involving headaches, fatigue, restlessness, and disturbances of sleep and appetite rather than discussion of stress or emotional distress. Sociopolitical Influences - ✅> response to a history of prejudice, discrimination, and racism, many minorities have adopted various behaviors that have proved important for their survival Some people may define these actions as abnormal and deviant, yet from the minority group's perspective, the behaviors function as healthy survival mechanisms. Early personality studies of African Americans concluded that, as a group, they tend to appear more "suspicious," "mistrustful," and "paranoid" Members of minority groups who have been targets of discrimination and oppression in a society not yet free of racism have good reason to be suspicious and distrustful of white society. "paranoid orientation" may reflect not only survival skills but also an accurate reflection of reality Cultural and Ethnic Bias in Diagnosis - ✅> important to be aware of potential cultural biases inherent in diagnosis and the diagnostic system. bias on the part of mental health professionals can affect their view of symptoms and subsequent diagnosis. possible for even the most enlightened and well-intentioned mental health professionals to be influenced by race, gender, and social class bias.
One source of bias is the tendency to overpathologize—to exaggerate the severity of disorders— among clients from particular socioeconomic, racial, or ethnic groups whose cultural values or lifestyles differ markedly from the clinician's own. overpathologizing of disorders has been found to occur in psychological evaluations of African Americans, Latino/Hispanic Americans, women, and lesbian/gay/bisexual/ transsexual populations Positive Psychology - ✅> the philosophical and scientific study of positive human functioning and the strengths and assets of individuals, families, and communities branch of the profession that seeks to add balance to our view of human functioning; spirituality - ✅belief in an animating life force or energy beyond what we can perceive with our senses What contributions does the field of positive psychology make to our understanding of mental health? - ✅1. Considering clients' strengths and their capacity for resilience has become increasingly important in therapeutic assessment and treatment. Therapists realize that clients are not just passive beings, helpless to deal with life problems. Identifying strengths is a positive experience for clients and can assist with treatment and recovery. When therapists incorporate the positive qualities of human functioning and adaptive coping into treatment, clients increase their confidence in coping with distressing emotional symptoms and in managing day-to-day challenges.
- Positive psychology also focuses on prevention. Positive psychology addresses adaptive, healthy coping and the potential for positive emotions to influence negative moods and build psychological resilience (Schutz et al., 2013). The goal is to identify the strengths and assets of people, to arm them with adaptive coping skills, and to promote mental health. psychological resilience - ✅the capacity to effectively adapt to and bounce back from stress, trauma, and other adversity
effective coping strategies and healing processes.
- Understanding that barriers can be overcome allows one to confidently live, work, and participate in society. psychotropic medications - ✅drugs used to treat or manage psychiatric symptoms by influencing brain activity associated with emotions and behavior Changes in the Therapeutic Landscape - ✅> The Drug Revolution in Psychiatry
The Development of Managed Health Care An Increased Appreciation for Research An Increased Appreciation for Research Technology-Assisted Therapy This industrialization of health care has brought about major changes in the mental health professions: - ✅(+) The business interests of health insurers exert increasing control over psychotherapy by determining what mental conditions are eligible for treatment and the number of treatment sessions allowed. (+) Some organizations, in an effort to reduce costs, prefer hiring therapists with master's degrees rather than those with doctoral degrees. (+) Therapists are increasingly required to use therapies that have strong research support. If research reveals that certain forms of treatment are successful for a particular disorder, the insurance carrier may deny coverage for unproven treatments. scientific approach/method for investigating abnormal behaviour consists of four steps: - ✅(a) formulating a research question, (b) expressing the research question in the form of an hypothesis, (c) applying methods of testing the hypothesis, and (d) drawing conclusions about the correctness or falseness of the hypothesis.
Depending on the research question, researchers will choose one of the methods below that suits the investigation of their hypothesised problem. naturalistic observational method - ✅used when the investigator needs to observe naturally occurring phenomena/ behaviour under naturally occurring conditions. research method - ✅method that explores relationships between variables attempts to find one or more possible correlations between the chosen variables. Such correlations cannot be considered as positive proof of cause-effect relationships; they do however have the potential to suggest possible underlying correlations amongst the assumed causes of the observed behaviour and may thus serve to tentatively predict the repetition of such behaviours in the future. longitudinal research method - ✅methods that investigate possible correlations over time, by repeatedly observing a sample of subjects at periodic intervals over a very long period of time experimental method - ✅In order to reveal cause-effect relationships. Experimental investigators need to randomly assign subjects to the treatment and to the control groups in order to eliminate experimenter bias, and to comply with the rules of scientific research. epidemiological approach - ✅examines the rate at which abnormal behaviour occurs in various population groups and in a variety of settings, such as trying to differentiate between contributions from the environment and from heredity in twin study and adoptee study research. case-study method's limitations of possible therapist bias and inaccurate and biased case histories in the absence of control groups can be largely overcome by - ✅single-case experimental designs. Abnormal psychology - ✅focuses on psychopathology the study of the symptoms and causes of mental distress and the various treatments for behavioural and mental disorders
until proven guilty lock and someone up before they committed dangerous Act potentialy violate someone's civil rights Psychotherapy - ✅A program of systematic intervention with the purpose of improving client behaviour emotional or cognitive symptoms Clinical psychologist - ✅PhD or psychology doctorate, training includes coursework and psychopathology personality diagnose psychological testing psychotherapy and human physiology Counselling psychologist - ✅Academic internship similar to those of a clinical psychologist but with a focus on Life Justin problems rather than mental illness Mental health counselor or marriage family therapist - ✅Training usually includes a master's degree in counselling of psychology and many hours of supervised Clinical experience A neuropsychologist - ✅PhD level specialisation focusing on brain behaviour relationships, conduct assessment diagnosis treatment planning and research related to neurological medical developmental or psychiatric conditions Psychiatrist - ✅MD degree can prescribe medication completes 4 years of medical school and additional 304 years of training in psychiatry Psychiatric social worker - ✅Master's degree from a social work graduate programme, specialises in assessment screening in therapy with high science and Outreach to other agencies Psychiatric nurse -
✅Holds an RN degree from a nursing program specialises in psychiatric training, advanced practice registered nurses have completed Masters or doctoral degree an allowed to prescribe medications, specialises in assessment diagnosis treatment and evaluation of mental illness School psychologist - ✅Complete a Master's or doctoral school psychology, houses in assessing and intervening of the emotional and learning difficulties of students in educational settings Substance abuse counselor - ✅Professional training requirements very many practitioners have personal experience, agencies that specialise in the evaluation and treatment of drug and alcohol addiction How do professionals define a mental disorder - ✅The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-5 the most widely used classification system of mental disorders DSM-5 indicated a mental disorder has the following components - ✅= involves significant disturbance and thinking emotional regulation behaviour caused by this function in the basic psychological biological or developmental processes involved in normal development = causes significant distress or difficulty with day-to-day functioning = is not merely culturally expected response to common stress is oral affection of political or religious beliefs that conflict with society norms DSM-5's definition raises questions - ✅= when are symptoms or patterns of behaviour significant enough to have meaning = is it possible to have a mental disorder without any signs of distress or discomfort = what could you do we used to decide if a behaviour pattern is a reflection of an underlying psychological or biological dysfunction and not merely a normal variation or an expectable response to common stressors Four major factors involved in judging psychopathology are - ✅= distress = deviance
