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Abnormal Psychology Exam Guide
5 Criteria for Psychological Disorders - ANS 1) "clinical significance," meaning that the behavior involves a measurable degree of impairment and "diagnostic validity" meaning that the diagnoses predict future behavior or responses to treatment
- the behavior reflects a dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes
- the behavior usually is associated with significant distress or disability in important realms of life
- the individual's behavior cannot be socially "deviant" as defined in terms of religion, politics, or sexuality
- conflicts between the individual and society are not counted as psychological disorders unless they reflect a dysfunction within the individual Biological Causes - ANS The biological domain includes genetic and environmental influences on physical functioning. Of particular interest are inherited factors that alter the functioning of the nervous system. There are also physiological changes that affect behavior, which other conditions in the body cause, such as brain damage or exposure to harmful environmental stimuli. Genetic inheritance Physiological changes Exposure to toxic substances Psychological Causes - ANS Psychological causes of abnormal behavior involve disturbances in thoughts and feelings. Past learning experiences Maladaptive thought patterns Difficulties coping with stress Sociocultural Causes - ANS The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discrimination, whether based on social class, income, race and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal behavior. Social policies Discrimination
Stigma Stigma - ANS A stigma is a label that causes us to regard certain people as different, defective, and set apart from mainstream members of society Biopsychosocial - ANS the interaction in which biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors play a role in the development of an individual's symptoms. The Biopsychosocial Perspective - ANS The biopsychosocial perspective incorporates a developmental viewpoint. This me ANS that individuals must be seen as changing over time. Biopsychosocial factors interact to alter the individual's expression of behavioral patterns over time. Spiritual Explanations - ANS regard abnormal behavior as the product of possession by evil or demonic spirits Humanitarian Explanations - ANS view psychological disorders as the result of cruelty, stress, or poor living conditions. Scientific Explanations - ANS look for causes that we can objectively measure, such as biological alterations, faulty learning processes, or emotional stressors. trephining - ANS a process wherein a "patient" would have a hole cut into their skull to release the assumed evil spirit trapped inside. exorcism - ANS An ancient practice performed by a shaman, priest, or medicine man wherein the "patient" wpuld undergo a physically and mentally painful form of torture to drive evil spirits away. Malleus Maleficarum - ANS an indictment of witches written by two Dominican monks in Germany in 1486, became the Church's justification for denouncing witches as heretics and devils whom it had to destroy in the interest of preserving Christianity. The Church recommended "treatments" such as deportation, torture, and burning at the stake. Women were the main targets of persecution. Dorothea Dix - ANS a Boston schoolteacher and reformer who sought to improve the treatment of people with psychological disorders in the mid-1800s. Dix appealed to the Massachusetts Legislature for more state-funded public hospitals to provide humane treatment for mental patients. From Massachusetts, Dix spread her message throughout North America and Europe.
1939, Freud had articulated a vision for psychological disorder cause and treatment with the basic tenet that most symptoms had roots buried deep within an individual's past. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) - ANS Russian physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning, became the basis for the behaviorist movement begun in the United States by John B. Watson (1878-1958). B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) formulated a systematic approach to operant conditioning, specifying the types and nature of reinforcement as a way to modify behavior. Positive Psychology - ANS movement which emphasizes the potential for growth and change throughout life. The movement views psychological disorders as difficulties that inhibit the individual's ability to achieve highly subjective well-being and feelings of fulfillment. In addition, the positive psychology movement emphasizes prevention rather than intervention. Instead of fixing problems after they occur, it would benefit people more if they could avoid developing symptoms in the first place. Independent Variable - ANS the variable whose level is adjusted or controlled by the experimenter. The investigator sets up at least two conditions that reflect different levels of the independent variable. Dependent Variable - ANS the variable whose value is the outcome of the experimenter's manipulation of the independent variable; the variable they observe. demand characteristics - ANS Expectations of the the investigator and the participant about the experiment's outcome which can compromise the conclusions about the intervention's true effectiveness. Double-Blind Method - ANS An experimental procedure in which neither the person giving nor recieving the treatment knows whether the participant is in the control or treatment group. This is the best way to eliminate demand characteristics as it shields both investigator and participant from knowing either the study's purpose or the nature of the patient's treatment. Research Methods - ANS Survey Laboratory study Case study Single case experimental design Behavioral genetics
Survey - ANS (or poll) is used to to gather information from a sample of people representative of a particular population. In a survey, investigators design sets of questions to tap into these variables. Researchers also use surveys to gather statistics about the frequency of psychological symptoms. Incidence - ANS the frequency of new cases of a disorder within a given time period. Prevalence - ANS the number of people who have ever had the disorder over a specified period of time. Case Study - ANS an intensive investigation of an individual or small group of individuals Qualitative Research - ANS A method of analyzing data that provides research with methods analyzing complex relationships that do not easily lend themselves to conventional statistical methods. single case experimental design (SCED) - ANS Design in which the same person serves as the subject in both the experimental and control conditions. Particularly useful for studies of treatment effectiveness, a single-subject design typically involves alternating off-on phases of the baseline condition ("A") and the intervention ("B"). multiple baseline method - ANS In a multiple baseline design, the researcher applies the treatment in an AB fashion so that it is never removed. The observation occurs across different subjects, for different behaviors, or in different settings. The researcher takes repeated measures of behavior in relation to introduction of the treatment. Concordance rate - ANS agreement ratios between people diagnosed as having the disorder and their relatives Gene mapping - ANS The attempt of biological researchers to identify the structure of a gene and the characteristics it controls. In gene mapping researchers examine and connect variations in chromosomes to performance on psychological tests or diagnosis of specific disorders. Molecular genetics - ANS the study of how genes translate hereditary information. Theoretical Perspectives - ANS orientations to understanding the causes of human behavior and the treatment of abnormality
their genetic predispositions. This elicits the second gene-environment interaction and can occur when the parents treat the children with certain genetic predispositions in particular ways because their abilities bring out particular responses. We call the third gene-environment correlation "niche picking." The athletically gifted child may not wait for recruitment, but instead seeks out opportunities to play sports, and in this process becomes even more talented. In terms of the development of psychological disorders, any three of these situations can occur, heightening the risk that children of parents with genetic predispositions are more likely to develop the disorder because of the environment's enhancing effect. Gene-environment interactions - ANS When two different genotypes respond to environmental variation in different ways. A norm of reaction is a graph that shows the relationship between genes and environmental factors when phenotypic differences are continuous. Gene-environment interactions occur when one factor influences the expression of the other. A person may have a latent genetic predisposition or vulnerability that only manifests itself when that individual comes under environmental stress. The genetic risk presence did not predict whether or not the person developed major depressive disorder unless that individual was exposed to a high-stress environment Diathesis-stress model - ANS The proposal that people are born with a diathesis (genetic predisposition) or acquire vulnerability early in life due to formative events such as traumas, diseases, birth complications, or harsh family environments. This vulnerability then places these individuals at risk for the development of a psychological disorder as they grow older. Epigenesis - ANS Process through which the environment causes genes to turn "off" or "on." If the remaining working gene is deleted or severely mutated, then a person can develop an illness. DNA methylation - ANS The process of DNA methylation can turn off a gene as a chemical group, methyl, attaches itself to the gene family inheritance studies - ANS In family inheritance studies, researchers compare the disorder rates across relatives who have varying degrees of genetic relatedness. These studies examine disorder rates in different pairs of genetically related individuals. The highest degree of genetic relatedness is between identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins, who share 100 percent of their genotype. Dizygotic (DZ) or fraternal twins share, on the average, 50 percent of their genomes, but both types of twins share the same familial environment Genome-wide Linkage study - ANS Genetic method in which researchers study the families of people with specific psychological traits or disorders. The principle behind a linkage study is that characteristics near to each other on a particular gene are more likely inherited together.
Genome-wide Association study (GWAS) - ANS Genetic method in which researchers scan the entire genome of individuals who are not related to find the associated genetic variations with a particular disease. They are looking for an SNP. single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) - ANS (pronounced "snip") is a small genetic variation that can occur in a person's DNA sequence. Four nucleotide letters—adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine (A, G, T, C)—specify the genetic code. A SNP variation occurs when a single nucleotide, such as an A, replaces one of the other three. Psychotherapeutic medications - ANS Somatic treatments that are intended to reduce the individual's symptoms by altering the levels of neurotransmitters that researchers believe are involved in the disorder. Paul Charpentier - ANS In 1950, a French chemist, Paul Charpentier, synthesized chlorpromazine (Thorazine). This medication gained widespread acceptance in the 1960s, and led the way toward the development of a wider range of psychotherapeutic agents. the major categories of psychotherapeutic agents - ANS antipsychotics, antidepressants, mood stabilizers, anticonvulsants, antianxiety medications, and stimulants Psychosurgery - ANS A form of brain surgery, the purpose of which is to reduce psychological disturbance. psychiatric neurosurgery - ANS a treatment in which a neurosurgeon operates on brain regions, most likely responsible for the individual's symptoms. Egas Moniz - ANS The first modern use of psychosurgery was a prefrontal lobotomy, which the Portuguese neurosurgeon Egas Moniz developed in 1935. By severing the prefrontal lobes from the rest of the brain, Moniz found that he was able to reduce the patient's symptoms. Unfortunately, the procedure also caused severe changes in the patient's personality, including loss of motivation. The medical field considered the technique a major breakthrough at the time, leading Moniz to be honored with a Nobel Prize in 1949. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) - ANS (also called neuromodulation) A somatic treatment in which a neurosurgeon implants a microelectrode that delivers a constant low electrical stimulation to a small region of the brain, powered by an implanted battery.
Libido - ANS An instinctual pressure for gratification of sexual and aggressive desires. The id's primal instincts. Ego - ANS In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of personality that gives the individual the mental powers of judgment, memory, perception, and decision making, enabling the individual to adapt to the realities of the external world. The center of conscious awareness in personality. The ego is governed by the reality principle and uses secondary process thinking. Reality Principle - ANS In psychoanalyic theory, the motivational force that leads the individual to confront the constraints of the external world. secondary process thinking - ANS In psychoanalytic theory, the kind of thinking involved in logical and rational problem solving. Superego - ANS In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of personality that includes the conscience and the ego ideal; it incorporates societal prohibitions and exerts control over the seeking of instinctual gratification. Defense mechanism - ANS Tactics that keep unacceptable thoughts, instincts, and feelings out of conscious awareness and thus protect the ego against anxiety. Freud believed that people need protection from knowing about their own unconscious desires. Displacement - ANS Shifting unacceptable feelings or impulses from the target of those feelings to someone less threatening or to an object Intellectualization - ANS Resorting to excessive abstract thinking rather than focus on the upsetting aspects of response to issues that cause conflict or stress Reaction formation - ANS Transforming an unacceptable feeling or desire into its opposite in order to make it more acceptable Repression - ANS Unconsciously excluding disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from awareness Denial - ANS Dealing with emotional conflict or stress by refusing to acknowledge a painful aspect of reality or experience that would be apparent to others
Projection - ANS Attributing undesirable personal traits or feelings to someone else to protect one's ego from acknowledging distasteful personal attributes Sublimation - ANS Transferring an unacceptable impulse or desire into a socially appropriate activity or interest Regression - ANS Dealing with emotional conflict or stress by reverting to childish behaviors Psychosexual Stages - ANS According to psychoanalytic theory, the normal sequence of development through which each individual passes between infancy and adulthood. Freud claimed that children go through these stages in accordance with the development of their libido. At each stage, the libido becomes fixated on a particular "erogenous" or sexually excitable zone of the body. According to Freud, an individual may regress to behavior appropriate to an earlier stage or may become stuck, or fixated, at that stage. Oedipus Complex - ANS Freud's belief that the child's feelings toward the opposite-sex parent set the stage for later psychological adjustment. The outcome determines whether the individual has a healthy ego or would spend a life marred by anxiety and repressed conflictual feelings. Carl Jung (1875-1961) - ANS Swiss psychiatrist who revamped the definition of the unconscious. According to Jung (1961), the unconscious is formed at its very root around a set of images common to all human experience, which he called archetypes. Jung believed that people respond to events in their daily lives on the basis of these archetypes, because they are part of our genetic makeup. In addition, Jung (1916) believed that abnormality resulted from an imbalance within the mind, especially when people fail to pay proper attention to their unconscious needs. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and Karen Horney (1885-1952) - ANS Neo-Freudi ANS who believed the ego was the most important aspect of personality. Although their theories represented distinct contributions, and each associated with it a particular type of therapy, they both gave great emphasis to the role of a healthy self-concept in normal psychological functioning. Adler talked about the negative consequences of an "inferiority complex," and Horney proposed that unhappiness comes from trying to live up to a false self. Both Adler and Horney also emphasized social concerns and interpersonal relations in the development of personality. They saw close relationships with family and friends and an interest in the life of the community as gratifying in their own right, not because a sexual or an aggressive desire is indirectly satisfied in the process Erik Erikson (1902-1994) - ANS A psychodynamic theorist who gave attention to the whole of life, not just childhood. He examined the ego, or what he called "ego identity", most.
Classical conditioning - ANS The learning of a connection between an originally neutral stimulus and a naturally evoking stimulus that produces an automatic reflexive reaction - accounts for the learning of emotional, automatic responses Operant condictioning - ANS A learning process in which an individual acquires behaviors through reinforcement. Reinforcement - ANS the "strengthening" of a behavior. Social Learning Theory - ANS Perspective that focuses on understanding how people develop psychological disorders through their relationships with others and through observation of other people. Vicarious reinforcement - ANS A form of learning in which a new behavior is acquired through the process of watching someone else receive reinforcement for the same behavior. Self efficacy - ANS The individual's perception of competence in various life situations. Counterconditioning - ANS The process of replacing an undesired response to a stimulus with an acceptable response. Ex. Clients learn to associate the response of relaxation to the stimulus that formerly caused them to feel anxious Systematic desensitization - ANS A variant of counterconditioning that involves presenting the client with progressively more anxiety-provoking images while in a relaxed state. contingency management - ANS A form of behavioral therapy that involves the principle of rewarding a client for desired behaviors and not providing rewards for undesired behaviors. Toek economy - ANS A form of contingency management in which a client who performs desired activities earns chips or tokens that can later be exchanged for tangible benefits. Participant modeling - ANS A form of therapy in which the therapist first shows the client a desired behavior and then guides the client through the behavioral change.
cognitive perspective - ANS A theoretical perspective in which it is assumed that abnormality is caused by maladaptive thought processes that result in dysfunctional behavior. automatic thoughts - ANS Ideas so deeply entrenched that the individual is not even aware that they lead to feelings of unhappiness and discouragement. dysfunctional attitudes - ANS Personal rules or values people hold that interfere with adequate adjustment - negative beliefs about the self that are also deeply engrained and difficult to articulate. "A-B-C" chain of events - ANS model developed by Albert Ellis, there is an "A-B-C" chain of events leading from faulty cognitions to dysfunctional emotions. A refers to the "activating experience," B to beliefs, and C to consequences. In people with psychological disorders, these beliefs take an irrational form of views about the self and the world that are unrealistic, extreme, and illogical. Cognitive restructuring - ANS One of the fundamental techniques of cognitive-behavioral therapy in which clients learn to reframe negative ideas into more positive ones. The clinician attempts to change the client's thoughts by questioning and challenging the client's dysfunctional attitudes and irrational beliefs cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) - ANS Treatment method in which clinici ANS focus on changing both maladaptive thoughts and maladaptive behaviors. Clinici ANS incorporate behavioral techniques such as homework and reinforcement with cognitive methods that increase awareness by clients of their dysfunctional thoughts. Clients learn to recognize when their appraisals of situations are unrealistically contributing to their dysfunctional emotions. They can then try to identify situations, behavior, or people that help them counteract these emotions. The goal of CBT is to give clients greater control over their dysfunctional behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) - ANS A form of cognitive therapy that helps clients accept the full range of their subjective experiences, such as distressing thoughts and feelings, as they commit themselves to tasks aimed at achieving behavior change that will lead to an improved quality of life. Central to ACT's approach is the notion that, rather than fighting off disturbing symptoms, clients should acknowledge that they will feel certain unpleasant emotions in certain situations. By accepting, rather than avoiding such situations, individuals can gain perspective and, in the process, feel that they are more in control of their symptoms. Humanistic perspective - ANS An approach to personality and psychological disorder that regards people as motivated by the need to understand themselves and the world and to derive greater enrichment from their experiences by fulfilling their unique individual potential.
- Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships.
- Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others.
- Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Unconditional positive regard - ANS A method in client-centered therapy in which the clinician gives total acceptance of what the client says, does, and feels. As clients feel better about themselves, they become better able to tolerate the anxiety that occurs with acknowledging their own weaknesses because they no longer feel driven to see themselves as perfect. The clinician tries to be as empathic as possible and attempts to see the client's situation as it appears to the client motivational interviewing - ANS A directive, client-centered style for eliciting behavior change by helping clients explore and resolve ambivalence. In motivational interviewing, the clinician collaborates with the client to strengthen the client's motivation to make changes by asking questions that elicit the individual's own arguments for change. MI, like the client-centered approach in general, emphasizes the client's autonomy. sociocultural perspective - ANS The theoretical perspective that emphasizes the ways that individuals are influenced by people, social institutions, and social forces in the world around them. family perspective - ANS A theoretical perspective in which it is assumed that abnormality is caused by disturbances in the pattern of interactions and relationships within the family. These disturbed patterns of relationships may create the "identified patient"; namely the individual in treatment whose difficulties reflect strains within the family. Social discrimination - ANS Prejudicial treatment of a class of individuals, seen in the sociocultural perspective as a cause of psychological problems. Irvin Yalom (1931 - ) - ANS An American existential psychiatrist who founded group therapy. According to Irvin Yalom (1995), a founder of group therapy, group therapy has a positive impact by allowing clients to find relief and hope in the realization that their problems are not unique. In the group, they can acquire valuable information and advice from people who share their concerns.
multicultural approach - ANS To therapy: therapy that relies on awareness, knowledge, and skills of the client's sociocultural context. For example, therapists need to be sensitive to the ways in which the client's cultural background interacts with his or her specific life experiences and family influences. A commitment to learning about the client's cultural, ethnic, and racial group and how these factors play a role in assessment, diagnosis, and treatment, characterize knowledge. psychiatrist - ANS People with degrees in medicine (MDs) who receive specialized advanced training in diagnosing and treating people with psychological disorders. clinical psychologist - ANS A mental health professional with training in the behavioral sciences who provides direct service to clients. doctor of philosophy (PhD) - ANS In psychology: The doctor of philosophy (PhD) is typically awarded for completing graduate training in research. In order to be able to practice, people who get their PhD's in clinical psychology also complete an internship. doctor of psychology (PsyD) - ANS In psychology: The doctor of psychology (PsyD) is the degree that professional schools of psychology award and typically involves less training in research. These individuals also must complete an internship in order to practice. reliability - ANS When used with regard to diagnosis, the degree to which clinici ANS provide diagnoses consistently across individuals who have a particular set of symptoms. validity - ANS The extent to which a test, diagnosis, or rating accurately and distinctly characterizes a person's psychological status. DSM-5 - ANS The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is the 2013 update to the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) classification and diagnostic tool. In the United States the DSM serves as a universal authority for psychiatric diagnosis. axis - ANS A class of information in DSM-IV regarding an aspect of the individual's functioning. multiaxial system - ANS A multidimensional classification and diagnostic system in the DSM-IV-TR summarizing relevant information about an individual's physical and psychological functioning. culture-bound syndromes - ANS Recurrent patterns of abnormal behavior or experience that are limited to specific societies or cultural areas.
psychological assessment - ANS A broad range of measurement techniques, all of which involve having people provide scorable information about their psychological functioning. standardization - ANS A psychometric criterion that clearly specifies a test's instructions for administration and scoring. "Barnum Effect" - ANS Named after legendary circus owner P. T. Barnum, this is the tendency for clinici ANS unintentionally to make generic and vague statements about their clients that do not specifically characterize the client. Evidence-based assessment includes: - ANS (1) relying on research findings and scientifically viable theories; (2) using psychometrically strong measures; and (3) empirically evaluating the assessment process clinical interview - ANS A series of questions that clinici ANS administer in face-to-face interaction with the client unstructured interview - ANS A series of open-ended questions aimed at determining the client's reasons for being in treatment, symptoms, health status, family background, and life history. structured interview - ANS A standardized series of assessment questions, with a predetermined wording and order. mental status examination - ANS A method of objectively assessing a client's behavior and functioning in a number of spheres, with particular attention to the symptoms associated with psychological disturbance. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) - ANS a structured tool that clinici ANS use as a brief screening device to assess dementia. The clinician administers a set of short memory tasks and compares the client's scores to established norms. If the client scores below a certain cutoff, the clinician then can (and should) continue to more in-depth testing of potential cognitive impairments. deviation intelligence (IQ) - ANS An index of intelligence derived from comparing the individual's score on an intelligence test with the mean score for that individual's reference group. The average deviation IQ score is set at 100 with a standard deviation of 15. If a child receives an SB5 IQ score of 115, this me ANS that the child stands at above the IQ of 68 percent of the population.
self-report clinical inventory - ANS A psychological test with standardized questions having fixed response categories that the test-taker completes independently, self-reporting the extent to which the responses are accurate characterizations. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) - ANS The most popular self-report inventory by far is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), originally published in 1943. The current version of the test is the 1989 revision known as the MMPI-2. There are 567 true-false items on the MMPI-2, which are all in the form of statements that describe the individual's thoughts, behaviors, feelings, and attitudes. The original intent of the MMPI was to provide scores on 10 so- called "clinical scales" corresponding to major diagnostic categories such as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety. The text developers built an additional 3 "validity" scales into the test in order to guard against people trying to feign either exceptional psychological health or illness. The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) - ANS The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) (Morey, 1992) consists of 344 items organized into 11 clinical scales, 5 treatment scales, 2 interpersonal scales, and 4 validity scales. One advantage of the PAI is that clinici ANS can use it with clients who may not have the language or reading skills to complete the MMPI-2. A second advantage is that, unlike the MMPI, one calculates the validity scale independently of any of the content scales. The SCL-90-R - ANS The SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 1994) measures the test-taker's current experiencing of 90 physical and psychological symptoms. One advantage of the SCL-90-R is that it focuses on the client's current status rather than asking about symptoms over a previous period of time. Consequently, clinici ANS can track the progress of their clients over multiple occasions. NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) (NEO-PI-R) - ANS Less oriented toward clinical use is the NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) (NEO-PI-R)(Costa & McCrae, 1992), a 240-item questionnaire that measures five personality dimensions, or sets of traits. The scales are designed so the test-taker can complete them as well as individuals who know the test-taker, such as spouses, partners, or relatives (Form R). People use the NEO-PI-R less in clinical settings than in personality research or in personnel selection, although it can be of value in describing a client's "personality" as distinct from the client's symptoms. Projective test - ANS A technique in which the test-taker is presented with an ambiguous item or task and is asked to respond by providing his or her own meaning or perception. The underlying idea behind projective tests is that people cannot or will not provide accurate statements on self-report inventories. Projective tests are most useful when combined with self-report inventories rather than used as the sole basis for diagnosing or evaluating a client. Rorschach Inkblot Test - ANS The most famous projective technique is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, named after Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach, who developed the method in 1911. To
