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What, Why, and How?
GRAMMAR
Adjectives and Adverbs Fragments
Appositives Possessives
Articles Run-Together Sentences
Commas Subject & Verb Identification
Contractions Subject-Verb Agreement
Coordinators Subordinators
Dangling Modifiers Verb Tenses
Grammar chapter overview:
Adjectives and Adverbs: These are words you can use to modify—to describe or add meaning to—other words. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. Examples: young, small, loud, short, fat, pretty. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and even whole clauses. Examples: really, quickly, especially, early, well.
Appositives: Appositives modify nouns for the purpose of offering details or being specific. Appositives begin with a noun or an article (a, an, the), they don’t have their own subject and verb, and they are usually set off with a comma. Example: The car, an antique Stingray, cost ten thousand dollars.
Articles: The English language has definite (“ the ”) and indefinite articles (“ a ” and “ an ”). The use depends on whether you are referring a specific member of a group (definite) or to any member of a group (indefinite).
Commas: Commas have many uses in the English language. They are responsible for everything from setting apart items in a series to making your writing clearer and preventing misreading.
Contractions: Apostrophes can show possession (the girl’s hamster is strange), and also can show the omission of one or more letters when words are combined into contractions (do not = don’t).
Coordinators: Coordinators are words you can use to join simple sentences to equally stress both ideas you are connecting. You can easily remember the seven coordinators if you keep in mind the word FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
Dangling Modifiers: All modifiers, words that add clarity, describe, or add detail to other words in a sentence, must be clearly and logically connected to their implied subjects, the grammatical subject of the clause nearest to the modifier. When they are not logically connected, they are called dangling modifiers.
Fragments: A sentence must contain a subject-verb unit; a fragment is a group of words that pretends to be a sentence but doesn’t actually have a valid subject-verb unit. Example: Since they broke up.
Possessives: To show ownership of things, people or concepts, we use possessives. A common way to form the possessive is to add apostrophe + s. Example: the books of the student → the student’s books.
Run-Together Sentences: Run-together sentences are the result of combining two or more complete sentences together without an acceptable joiner. Acceptable joiners for connecting independent clauses include: coordinators, subordinators, and semi-colons ( ; ).
Subject & Verb Identification: Two of the most important parts of speech are subjects and verbs. Verbs are words that indicate action or a state of being, words like: write, run, tell, have, be, look, feel. The subject of a sentence performs the action(s) indicated by the main verb; that is, the subject is the doer of the action.
Subject-Verb Agreement: In the present tense verbs must agree with their subjects: both must be singular, or both must be plural. Examples: I breathe the air. He breathes the air. You must add an – s or – es at the end of the verb when the subject is a singular third person (he, she, it).
Subordinators: Like coordinators, subordinators can join simple sentences but they de-emphasize one of the ideas. Sentences with a subordinator (words such as although, since, when, even though, because) need to be connected to an independent sentence. Example: Since she studied , she got an A.
Verb Tenses: Tense refers to the form a verb takes in a sentence, whether to express the present, past or future.
Rules
Examples
Normal Comparative Superlative
Longer adjectives & most longer adverbs ending in
- ly: Add “more” + adjective/adverb for comparative Add “most” +adjective/adverb for superlative
Delicious Incredible
More delicious More incredible
Most delicious Most incredible
Slowly Easily Brightly
More slowly More easily More brightly
Most slowly Most easily Most brightly
Irregular adjectives and adverbs have special forms
Good Bad Little (amount) Many
Better Worse Less More
Best Worst Least Most
Well Badly
Better Worse
Best Worst
When using comparative and superlative forms, keep the following in mind:
Many adverbs indicating time, place, and degree (i.e. tomorrow, here, totally) do not have comparative or superlative forms.
Adjectives and adverbs that indicate an absolute or unchangeable quality should not be used with comparative and superlative constructions. Such absolute modifiers include words like final, main, impossible, perfect, unavoidable, unique.
Placement of Adjectives & Adverbs
Misplaced adjective or adverbs can cause confusion, as in the following example:
Shaken not stirred, James Bond drank his martinis.
The writer is probably referring to the martinis, but the way this sentence is written, it implies that James Bond himself is shaken and not stirred.
For more information about misplaced adjectives and adverbs, see “Dangling Modifiers.”
Adjectives In order to avoid confusion, try to place adjectives as close as possible to the nouns or pronouns they modify. Most one-word adjectives come right before the nouns they modify. In the examples below, the adjectives are double-underlined and the nouns they modify are in italics.
He made a delicious dinner. The hungry girls devoured it quickly.
Their full stomachs pushed against their jeans.
But they couldn’t resist the incredible dessert.
One major exception to this rule is when an adjective follows a linking verb (i.e. is/are, was/were, feel, smell, taste, look, believe). For example:
Dinner was delicious.
The girls were hungry.
Their stomachs felt full.
Dessert looked incredible.
Be careful. Sometimes writers will use adverbs with a linking verb when what they really want is an adjective, or vice-versa. Choosing the adjective versus the adverb form of the same word has big implications for the meaning of a sentence. For example:
Adjective Adverb
I feel bad. (I feel ill, depressed, apologetic) I feel badly (I’m bad at feeling)
Multiple-word adjective phrases generally follow the noun or pronoun they modify, but occasionally can come before.
The girl snoring in the next room woke up her roommate.
The customer annoyed with the slow service complained to the manager.
Proud of her youngest son, his mother showed his picture to strangers on the bus.
Adjective clauses—easy to identify because they start with the words “who,” “whom,” “whose,” “which,” “that,” “when,” and ”where”— follow the noun they modify. For example:
She had a goat that she loved very much.
His favorite girlfriend , who he thought was coming over later that evening, had just received an anonymous phone call.
A) Identify the adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences by underlining the adjectives twice and the adverbs once..
For example : The one-eyed green aliens stepped cautiously out of their spaceship.
- Their timid leader tentatively put one fat, calloused foot on the grass.
- She then gingerly placed the other foot down.
- She paused, thoughtfully scratched her forehead, and then started to waddle quite gracelessly
toward a dim light.
- Soon the braver aliens followed her but the more cowardly aliens hung back inside the door of the
silver spaceship.
- Suddenly, they heard a short, high-pitched yelp.
- The youngest alien had stepped accidentally on the tail of a small furry creature, and both of them
cried out instinctively.
- The little alien regained his composure right away and, curious about the strange creature, he
carefully reached down to pick up the frightened mouse.
- The mouse, still terrified, dashed away.
- It ran over the sensitive toes of several aliens who squealed loudly
- The resulting commotion distracted the group, and they didn’t notice the two young children slowly
riding up on their creaky three-speed bicycles.
PRACTICE
B) Create more detailed sentences by adding your own adjectives and adverbs to modify the words in italics. For example:
The star punched the photographer.
The reclusive movie star violently punched the pushy photographer.
- The island was populated by birds that soared over the trees.
- It was also populated by tourists who stayed at the resort and sat by the pool.
- The man in a suit was reading a magazine on his morning commute to work.
- The woman next to him sighed as the train stopped in a tunnel.
- The neighbors gossiped about the people who lived in the house on the corner.
- UPS delivered packages to the back door and strangers in cars visited.
- The students in the computer lab talked to each other and worked on their essays.
- The tutor helped the boy with his homework.
- The children ate the ice cream.
- A bully grabbed one of the cones and stuffed it in his mouth.
A Note on Colons and Dashes
You may be wondering when a colon or dash is appropriate to set off an NPA. Most of the time a
comma will do just fine. Sometimes, though, you will wish to call more attention to the information in apposition—draw the reader’s eyes to it—and in those instances, a dash (which is made with two
hyphens “—“) may do the trick. A colon is usually used when the NPA is a series or list of items (“I
brought her favorite fruit: apples, oranges and peaches.”)
Exercise 1 – Noun Phrase Appositives – Sentence Combining
Combine the following sentences using NPAs.
Example: I want to take the painting to the museum for donation. The painting is a Van Gogh.
CORRECT: I want to take the painting, a Van Gogh, to the museum for donation.
- The lunch was cheap, served cold, and brought an hour late. The lunch was a bowl of soup.
- Maxwell’s car topped fifty miles per hour—but barely. His car was a sleek Corvair.
- The student body voted “no” on the resolution even though it would have benefited them explicitly. The student body is a confused group of adults whose only interest in common was the college’s location.
- The pilot was stranded for twelve hours inside of his jet. The pilot was a former Air Force mechanic. His jet was a Cessna Skylane.
- I want to speak on the important subjects. The important subjects are philosophy, linguistics and chemistry.
- After six long years Alec finally achieved his lifelong goal. The goal was a scholarship to a good college.
- Even though you’re willing to forfeit the prize, I think you should wait a week or two—until you know you won’t need the money. The prize would be my salary for a whole year.
- The bear came to our tent, peeked in, and went on his merry way. The bear was a sleepy grizzly.
- Camped around the fire, each of us stared at the night sky. The fire was a glowing source of warmth. The night sky was a bowl full of sparkling stars.
- Mrs. Peterson warned us that we would have only one more day to hand in the assignment. Mrs. Peterson is my least favorite teacher.
PRACTICE
Exercise 2 – NPAs – Sentence Combining
For each of the following sentences, add one or more NPA to give the reader additional information. Make up whatever you like! (Hint: find the noun(s) in the sentence to look to see what can take an NPA.)
Example:
The textbook fell from my desk.
CORRECT: The textbook, a giant collection of poetry, fell from
my desk.
- My best friend lost the race.
- Bill Clinton took first prize for his book.
- Joanne told Larry to go for a ride on his boat.
- Napoleon discovered the “trapple.”
- My binder contains one hundred papers and two pamphlets.
- The dog bit Bill in the leg before he could run into a house.
- Her shirt nearly blinded me.
- Abe Lincoln probably didn’t use Log Cabin syrup.
- I like the school’s newest building.
- Cindy took the money to the bank.
Plural Indefinite Article - some
You will use the word “ some ” before a plural noun (or its modifying adjective):
o some hairs o some boxes
The singular: I put all of my clothes in a box I found in the basement. The plural: I put all of my clothes in some boxes I found in the basement.
Plural Nouns Plural nouns do not require an indefinite article: “I love apples,” instead of “I love an apples.” (You must use the definite article if you have already introduced the idea or are referring to a specific member of a group: “I love the apples grown across the street.”)
Non-count Nouns Non-count nouns, which include concepts and ideas that cannot be counted in number, may or may not require an article: no one hard and fast rule applies. You can write “Kindness spreads like wildfire,” instead of “A kindness spreads like wildfire,” or “The kindness spreads like wildfire” (unless you are referring to a specific kindness mentioned elsewhere in your writing, as in “the kindness you showed me”).
Proper Nouns Proper nouns, which name a particular person, place or thing, sometimes take the article “ the ” and sometimes do not.
o Soda is damaging to your teeth, but everyone still drinks it. o The soda in my cup is flat, so I think I will throw it out. o We are going to meet at the White House.
Do not use “ the ” before:
o names of countries (except the Netherlands, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States) o names of cities, towns or states o names of streets o names of lakes and bays (except a group of lakes— the Great lakes) o names of mountains (except mountain ranges— the Rockies) o names of continents o names of islands (except island chains— the Canary islands)
Do use “ the ” before:
o names of rivers, oceans and seas o points on the globe o geographical areas o deserts, forests, gulfs and peninsulas
Adapted from: http://www.owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslart.html 3/14/06 – 10:00AM & The Brief Holt Handbook, Fourth Edition, Kirszner & Mandell, 2004
Exercise 1 – Definite and Indefinite Articles
Fill in the blank for each sentence using either a , an , or the , or leave the space blank if none is needed.
Example: I was going to the beach where my cousin Willie lost his board in the waves.
- Last week _______ seagull dropped his fish onto my car.
- Maria took out _______ garbage before reading.
- _______ surfboard cut through the waves as she sped toward the beach.
- Sculpture is _______ interesting art form, whether in metal, clay or uranium.
- I love picnics—especially when I remember _______ food.
- My house is falling apart, _______ shutters are in disrepair, and _______ windows are broken.
- The brothers met to discuss _______ possible solution.
- I went to the lab to work on _______ computer, but they were all taken.
- Well, professor, _______ alien came and stole my gray matter before I could finish my homework.
- This semester _______ same student violated his restraining order.
- She passed him to avoid _______ confrontation involving _______ police.
- I want to go to _______ part of Ukraine where they speak _______ Russian dialect.
- The assistants found _______ theme that meant the most to them, and they wove it carefully into _______ handbook they could be proud of.
- _______ airplane’s tires skidded down _______ Los Angeles Airport’s main runway before knocking out _______ baggage cart and _______ fuel truck.
- I am studying _______ American history in school, but only after I pass my Biology class and ace _______ final exam.
PRACTICE
Series
You will use commas to separate items in a series containing three or more coordinate elements.
Ron, Maria, and Jessica play soccer every day after school. My favorite vegetables are Brussels sprouts, spinach, and cauliflower. I want either fettuccini alfredo, eggplant parmesan, or the linguine with clams in a white sauce.
You will use commas to separate items in a series of two or more coordinate adjectives—adjectives modifying the same idea independent of each other.
It should be a slow , lazy day. Seven years passed in a destructive , whirling blur. He brought his sleek , shiny bicycle.
Commas are not required when the adjectives are cumulative, or when they describe different aspects of the same noun.
Donnie sold me ten gold bowling balls. My favorites are the lazy white clouds. He ordered a delicious chocolate cake for the party.
Comma-Adjective Rule
To help you decide whether or not you should use a comma when separating two or more adjectives, ask yourself the following two questions:
Can the order of the two adjectives be reversed? Can the word “ and ” be put between the adjectives?
If either answer is yes, then the adjectives are coordinate, and you should use a comma.
Jessica is an ambitious, intelligent woman. o Jessica is an intelligent, ambitious woman. [order reversed] o Jessica is an intelligent and ambitious woman. [added “ and ”]
If you cannot reverse the order of or add “ and ” to the adjectives, then they are cumulative, and do not require a comma.
Roger has fourteen silver horns. o Roger has silver fourteen horns. [The reversed order does not work.] o Roger has fourteen and silver horns. [The added “and” does not work.]
Setting off Nonessential Elements
Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term, while others are nonessential and do not restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas.
Nonessential (Nonrestrictive) Essential (Restrictive)
Students, who use the majority of the Health Center’s services , claim to be especially sick this year. All students claim to be sick this year.
Students who play any school sport will receive free tickets to final game. Only students who play a school sport receive the tickets, not all students. The professor, with a wink , dismissed her class early. Removing the phrase “with a wink” doesn’t change the meaning of the sentence.
The professor with no students is good for very little. The prepositional phrase “with no students” tells what kind of professor is good for very little; it is essential.
Popular politicians, campaigning in every small town in America, wave the American flag and kiss babies.
The politician campaigning for president has no time for a meaningful personal life.
The Big Lebowski , a 1997 Coen Brothers film, is a modern mystery and a Western rolled into one.
The great American movie The Big Lebowski popularized the nickname “Dude.”
When deciding whether information is nonessential or essential, ask yourself this question:
Is the modifier essential to the meaning of the noun or subject it modifies?
NO : Nonrestrictive (use commas) YES : Restrictive (no commas)
Exercise 1 – Commas – Dependent & Independent Clauses
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Examples:
Although my mother told me not to get her a gift, I decided to make her a scrapbook.
I want to give more money to her charity, but I think the IRS already took too much of my salary.
- Lately Katherine has wanted more companionship even though she rather likes to be alone.
- Jerry vies for her attention but she has so much on her own mind as she suffers through this ordeal.
- But whereas Alec acts like a friend he also wants Katherine’s admiration.
- So that she will be found innocent Miss Smatter will write another’s confession.
- Jerry eats his sandwich as coolly as the others do yet he can’t shake the feeling of deception and mistrust.
- Sabrina thinks that the apartment’s rent is trivial while Kelly thinks it crucial.
- Although Rachel has little say in the matter her friends could use the advice.
- Because her dog was hit by a car he walks with a substantial limp.
- The doctor set it with pins and even though he didn’t scratch at it he was still forced to wear a giant collar.
- Either the bill is paid within the month or the doctor will send a collection agency for the money.
PRACTICE
Exercise 2 – Commas – Series and Adjectives
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Example:
I want to pick fragrant, colorful daffodils, roses, and lilies for my sister’s birthday party.
- Lately Martin has been picking giant swollen mushrooms from his yard.
- Sue won the “Vegetable Prize of the Day” that included carrots turnips and leeks.
- Most people don’t know that their favorite chips contain preservatives artificial flavors and MSG.
- The three tall brothers took the brilliant shining vitamins before playing sports.
- Watching movies reading books sleeping and exercising are my favorite weekend activities.
Exercise 3 – Commas – Essential and Nonessential Items
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Example:
The racing fans, who rarely wave pennants, showed up in full force on Sunday.
- Shelly my mother’s step-sister gave me thirty dollars last week.
- The campus police who rarely arrest any faculty members are responsible for patrolling all night long.
- The man walking his dog down the street looks like my great-uncle Ted.
- My grandmother with a terrible scream alerted me to the fire in her closet.
- Doug gave me three helpings of dessert which was a crème brûlée.
- Speaking as if he was consumed with fury Louis yelled to the audience.
- The actor with no siblings starred in the blockbuster movie Grammar Cop.
- The helicopter a Grasker A-7 flew over the vast and empty desert.
- His wife the fifth one before Jane and after Cecilia always worried their marriage wouldn’t last.
- “Sonny’s Blues” the famous story by Baldwin contains rich allegory that weaves along with fascinating symbolism a rich fabric of text accessible to most readers.
