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Dyslexia: Definitions, Characteristics, Related Disorders, and Educational Approaches, Exams of Social Sciences

United States International UniversitySocial Sciences

This comprehensive study guide offers in-depth information on dyslexia, including historical definitions, diagnostic criteria, related disorders, and effective educational strategies. it explores the neurological basis of dyslexia, differentiates it from other learning disabilities, and details the characteristics of dyslexia across different age groups. The guide also covers structured literacy principles and provides insights into the impact of dyslexia on reading comprehension, writing, and spelling.

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ALTA EXAM DOMAIN 3 STUDY GUIDE
Word Blindness - Answers :Kussmaul (1877) and Hinshelwood (1895): Acquired
reading disability: inability to read words
Dyslexia (1887) - Answers :Rudolf Berlin: acquired reading disability: inability to read
words
Congenital Word Blindness - Answers :W. Pringle Morgan (1896) Hinshelwood
(1896/1917):
-Inability to read without obvious injury or illness
Strephosymbolia (definition) - Answers :Orton (1925): "twisted symbols"
-Dr. Orton coined the term to describe a condition he observed in his patients.
Word Deafness - Answers :Orton and Dozier (1937)
Specific Language Disability - Answers :Gillingham (1955) and June Orton (1962)
Specific Developmental Dyslexia (Developmental Dyslexia) - Answers :World
Federation of Neurology (1968)
Dyslexia (first definition) - Answers :Professor Berlin used this term to describe six
cases of the loss to reading due to "cerebral symptoms" during a 20-year period
Father of Dyslexia - Answers :Dr. Samuel T. Orton
Primary reading/spelling characteristics of dyslexia - Answers :• Difficulty reading words
in isolation
• Difficulty accurately decoding unfamiliar words
• Difficulty with oral reading (slow, inaccurate, or
labored without prosody)
• Difficulty spelling
Some dyslexics may not exhibit all characteristics; there are differences in degree of
impairment
IDA - Definition of Dyslexia (most widely accepted) - Answers :"Dyslexia is a specific
learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with
accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.
These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of
language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the
provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include
problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede
growth of vocabulary and background knowledge."
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ALTA EXAM DOMAIN 3 STUDY GUIDE

Word Blindness - Answers :Kussmaul (1877) and Hinshelwood (1895): Acquired reading disability: inability to read words Dyslexia (1887) - Answers :Rudolf Berlin: acquired reading disability: inability to read words Congenital Word Blindness - Answers :W. Pringle Morgan (1896) Hinshelwood (1896/1917):

  • Inability to read without obvious injury or illness Strephosymbolia (definition) - Answers :Orton (1925): "twisted symbols"
  • Dr. Orton coined the term to describe a condition he observed in his patients. Word Deafness - Answers :Orton and Dozier (1937) Specific Language Disability - Answers :Gillingham (1955) and June Orton (1962) Specific Developmental Dyslexia (Developmental Dyslexia) - Answers :World Federation of Neurology (1968) Dyslexia (first definition) - Answers :Professor Berlin used this term to describe six cases of the loss to reading due to "cerebral symptoms" during a 20-year period Father of Dyslexia - Answers :Dr. Samuel T. Orton Primary reading/spelling characteristics of dyslexia - Answers :• Difficulty reading words in isolation
  • Difficulty accurately decoding unfamiliar words
  • Difficulty with oral reading (slow, inaccurate, or labored without prosody)
  • Difficulty spelling Some dyslexics may not exhibit all characteristics; there are differences in degree of impairment IDA - Definition of Dyslexia (most widely accepted) - Answers :"Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge."

Adopted November 12, 2 002 Texas Education Code (TEC) - Definition of Dyslexia - Answers :(TEC) §38. "Dyslexia" means a disorder of constitutional origin manifested by a difficulty in learning to read, write, or spell, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity. "Related disorders" include disorders similar to or related to dyslexia, such as developmental auditory imperception, dysphasia, specific developmental dyslexia, developmental dysgraphia, and developmental spelling disability. Dr. Orton (contributions) - Answers :• Identified dyslexia as a "specific language disability"

  • Separated dyslexics from other sped students
  • Proposed a system for diagnosis-Outlined principles of remediation for dyslexics Reading/Spelling characteristics of dyslexia are related to... - Answers :• Phonemic awareness - Segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds in words; Learning letter names and their associated sounds
  • Phonological Memory - Holding information about sounds and words in memory
  • Rapid Naming - Rapidly recalling the names of familiar objects, colors, or letters of the alphabet Secondary consequences of dyslexia - Answers :• Variable difficulty with aspects of reading comprehension
  • Variable difficulty with aspects of written language
  • Limited vocabulary growth due to reduced reading experiences Content (Components) of Structured Literacy - Answers :What is taught
  • Simultaneous, multisensory (VAKT)
  • Systematic and Cumulative
  • Explicit Instruction
  • Diagnostic teaching to automaticity
  • Synthetic and Analytic instruction Principles of Instruction - Structured Literacy - Answers :What is taught

Specific Developmental Dyslexia - Answers :A glitch in brain hard wiring for language in fetal development Difficulty with the alphabet, reading, reading comprehension, writing, and spelling Developmental Dysgraphia - Answers :The inability to write legibly Developmental Spelling Disability - Answers :Significant difficulty in learning to spell Exclusionary Diagnosis - Answers :All other conditions/causes must be ruled out

  • low IQ, physical handicaps, environmental factors, etc aphasia - Answers :Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (speech) or to Wernicke's area (understanding). Broca's aphasia - Answers :Severe limitations in their speech output (expressive)
  • most common
  • loss of fluent speech while retaining the ability to understand language Wernicke's aphasia - Answers :Severe limitations in their ability to comprehend spoken language (receptive)
  • brain damage in frontal lobe.
  • speaks with ease but does not understand language Signs of dyslexia in young children in preschool (common characteristics) - Answers :- talking later than expected
  • slowness to add new words
  • difficulty rhyming
  • trouble following multistep directions Signs of dyslexia in young children, after child begins school (common characteristics) - Answers :-Difficulty reading single words, like on flashcards
  • difficulty learning letter-sound connections
  • confusing small words, such as "at " and "to"
  • letter reversals, such as d for p
  • word reversals, such as tip for pit Signs of dyslexia in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd graders (common characteristics) - Answers :Difficulty with...
  • Remembering simple sequences - days, abc's, counting
  • Understanding rhyming words
  • Recognizing words with the same beginning sound
  • Clapping to rhythm of songs
  • Using specific names of objects - "stuff" , "that thing"
  • Remembering spoken directions
  • Remembering names of places and people
  • Understanding right-left, up-down, font-back
  • Sitting still for a reasonable period of time
  • making and keeping friends easily Signs of dyslexia in adults (common characteristics) - Answers :- Hide reading problem
  • Spell poorly; rely on others to correct spelling
  • Avoid writing; may not be able to write
  • Often very competent in oral language
  • Rely on memory; may have an excellent memory
  • Often has good "'people" skills
  • Often spatially talented; professions include engineers, architects, designers, artists/craftspeople, mathematicians, physicists, physicians (esp. surgeons & orthopedists) and dentists.
  • May be good at reading people (intuitive)
  • Often work in a job below their intellectual capacity
  • Have difficulty with planning, organization, and management of time, materials, and tasks
  • Are often entrepreneurs Language Learning Differences - Answers :• average to above average intelligence
  • adequate vision and hearing
  • no primary emotional disturbance
  • fail when taught conventional educational techniques
  • result of auditory and visual processing dysfunction
  • include dyslexia and related disorders Related Disorders (Comorbid Learning Disabilities) - Answers :Refers to learning differences in:
  • reading comprehension
  • attention
  • math
  • coordination
  • social skills
  • oral language disorders Related Disorder: Reading Comprehension - Answers :• Reading Comprehension is below average
  • Math is usually below average
  • Written Expression below average (weak organization) Related Disorder: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - Answers :Chronic neurobiological disorder that interfere with a person's capacity to attend to tasks,
  • "spoke language is innate." (Chomsky)
  • Reading is an acquired act, an innovation of man. Relationship between executive function and dyslexia - Answers :Working memory is a subtype of executive function that includes capabilities of processing, storage and retrieval. Working memory and subsequent skills directly impact decoding difficulty seen with dyslexia. Neuron - Answers :• A cell that carries messages between the brain and other parts of the body.
  • Basic unit of the nervous system (nerve cell) Cerebral cortex - Answers :• Fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres
  • the body's ultimate control and information- processing center. Most processing occurs here. Cerebrum - Answers :• Most highly developed part of the human brain.
  • Responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language. Right hemisphere of cerebral cortex - Answers :Processes spatial information and abstract thoughts (artistic/creative) Left hemisphere of cerebral cortex - Answers :Processes language skills ( logical/structural) Frontal Lobes of cerebral cortex - Answers :Where conscience motor activity, emotion, complex thought, and memory recall occur.
  • Thinking: reasoning, problem solving, logic, creativity
  • Planning: sequencing, organizing
  • Speech/Language: production
  • Movement: primary motor area, sense of direction, spatial orientation
  • Emotions: sad-cry, happy-laugh, hungry-eat...etc
  • Coordinates other brain functions
  • Located in the frontal portion of the brain that contains the cerebellum. Temporal Lobes - Answers :• Processes auditory signals
  • Receives messages from the ears.

Important functions: memory, hearing, balance, & smell.

  • Located on the side portion of the brain and behind the ears. - second largest lobe. Occipital Lobes - Answers :• Helps in visual perception including color, image, size, and movement; creates understanding of what your eyes see.
  • Located in the bottom back part of the cortex in the lower portion of the brain. Parietal Lobes - Answers :• Regulates sensory information for taste and touch.
  • Located at the upper back portion of the brain. Sensory Cortex - Answers :• Integration of muscular action and sensations.
  • Registers and processes body touch and impressions of bodily movement.
  • Located in the parietal lobe. Motor Cortex - Answers :• Orders the muscles of the speech organs to move and alerts the cerebellum to coordinate their movement.
  • Located in the frontal lobe. The brain is divided into 4 lobes. Name them. - Answers :Frontal, Parietal, Occipital,Temporal Broca's Area of the brain - Answers :inferior frontal gyrus (articulation/word analysis)
  • source of speech production & expressive language
  • Located in the frontal lobe
  • involved in the posterior reading system Wernicke's Area of the brain (planum temporale) - Answers :Source of word processing and receptive language
  • involved in the posterior reading system Parieto-temporal region of the brain - Answers :Area of the brain responsible for word analysis.
  • a key part of the posterior reading system
  • Used in early stages of learning to read , analyze a word, pull it apart, and link letters to sounds.
  • low and analytic (Located above and slightly behind the ear)

neurotransmitter - Answers :"Chemical Messengers" that help the brain communicate neurological information from one cell to another. They transmit impulse signals from nerve cells (neurons) to target cells in muscles, glands, organs, or other nerves. Most of the reading part of the brain is in the back. It is called .... - Answers :The posterior reading system Brain Imaging Testing Techniques - Answers :• Electro-cephalography (EEG

  • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
  • Positron Emission Topography (PET)
  • Magneto-encephalography (MEG) Electro-cephalography (EEG) - Answers :Electric Scanning - records electric activity of the brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - Answers :Based on magnetic properties in components of blood.
  • changes in hemoglobin are linked to the amount of oxygen bound to it. greater oxygen

greater activation Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - Answers :Measures metabolic activity in the brain by injecting radioactive isotopes into the bloodstream to show "autoregulartion of cerebral blood flow."

  • local blood supply varies based on functional activity in that brain area. (invasive procedure) Magneto-encephalography (MEG) - Answers :Maps brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents caused by synapses in the axons and dendrites of neurons.
  • non-invasive, immediate results (new) Mental ability ranges (85-115 average) - Answers :130 + very superior 120 - 129 superior 110 - 119 bright normal 90 - 109 normal 80 - 90 low normal 70 - 80 low Below 70 very low Ectopias - Answers :Displacement of tissue to the surface of the brain Small bunches of nerve cells (neurons) and bundles of tangled nerve fiber (axioms) end up in foreign locations in the cortex. (theory by Gordon Sherman)
  • Scientists believe they occur during the brain development of the fetus before it's 6th month.
    • This "different wiring" may account for strengths in some areas and weaknesses in another. Hereditabilty of dyslexia - Twin Studies - Answers :•-70% in identical pairs, 48% in fraternal pairs Hereditabilty of dyslexia - Auto Dominant Inheritance - Answers :Affected members may carry the gene but be asymptomatic. (studies on chromosome #6) Evidence that dyslexia is "hereditable" - Answers :There is a 50% transmission rate. Hereditability of Dyslexia - Gender - Answers :Not gender specific - although more boys are referred. Qualitative Research - Answers :Research that involves observing an individual in a natural setting and relies on observation and description of events in immediate context. Quantitative Research - Answers :Research using experimental or quasi-experimental design methods to gather data. Quasi-Experimental Research - Answers :Research that determines cause and effect without strict randomized controlled trials. What are the National Research Council's principles? - Answers :1. Empirical investigations of significant questions
  1. Link research to theory - Convergence Validity
  2. Methods permit direct investigation
  3. Chain of reasoning
  4. Replication and generalization
  5. Disclosure of research Empirical investigation of significance questions (National Research Council's principles) - Answers :questions can be answered empirically through systematic observation and accumulation of data Convergent validity (National Research Council's principles) - Answers :variety of approaches in identifying information concerning the research

Visual motor ( dictation, written expression) Types of Auditory Perceptual Errors - Answers :Auditory Discrimination

  • wisp/whisk, deaf/death, smug/snug Auditory Memory
  • following directions, note taking Identification of children at high risk for academic learning tasks should be evaluated in the following areas. (CLAP) - Answers :C= Coordination L= Language* A=Attention* P=Perception* Evidence of a delay or disorder are primarily seen in the last three areas. Dyslexia in the brain - Answers :• Over activate the neural systems in the frontal lobe overstimulating the Broca's area
  • Under activate the neural systems in the back of the brain in the left hemisphere
  • Dyslexic brains - symmetrical across hemispheres of the planum temporale
  • non-dyslexic brains - left-greater-than-right asymmetry in the planum temporale Behavioral, Social and Emotional Issues Related to Dyslexia - Answers :Children with LD have more negative than positive experiences, especially after entering school.
  • exacerbates feelings of anxiety
  • self concept is negatively affected
  • negative behaviors develop Paul Broca (1861) - Answers :Physician
  • Examined the post-mortem brain of a patient affected • by aphasia (loss of language)
  • Discovered an irregular lesion in the left fontal region • Inferior frontal region - now called the Broca's area Adolf Kussmaul (1877) - Answers :German neurologist
  • coined the term "word blindness" "a complete text-blindness may exist, although the power of sight, the intellect and the powers of speech are intact." Rudolf Berlin (1887) - Answers :German Ophthalmologist
  • Used the term dyslexia to describe loss of reading ability due to injury or disease
  • Thought it was acquired, in family of aphasias Greek word "dys" means bad or difficult and "lexicos" means pertaining to words Dr. James Hinshelwood (1904) - Answers :Scottish ophthalmologist
  • 2 cases of of "congenital word blindness"
  • Defects in the left brain hemisphere
  • called for school "screening producers" Dr. Pringle Morgan (1896) - Answers :English ophthalmologist
  • First medical journal on word blindness Grace Fernald - Answers :Had students trace letters and numbers while saying the names aloud - become known as the VAKT approach Samual T. Orton (1925) - Answers :American Neuropsychiatrist, Columbia University Father of Dyslexia
  • Refers to twisted symbols as "strephosymbolia" replacing the former term word blindness.
  • adopted the multisensory approach of Fernald Anna Gillingham (1925) - Answers :Psychologist and educator
  • Worked with Orton to develop a prototype of multisensory instruction for dyslexic children
  • "Orton-Gillingham approach"
  • Published Remedial Work for Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship in 1936 Bessie Stillman (1938) - Answers :Remedial Reading Teacher
  • Worked with Orton and Gillingham
  • Helped develop teaching procedures and training Sally Childs (1962) - Answers :Teacher of teachers and children, researcher
  • Worked at Hockaday School in Dallas, TX
  • Trained by Anna Gillingham Aylett Cox (1966) - Answers :Teacher
  • Collaborated with Sally Childs
  • Wrote the Alphabetic Phonics curriculum at Texas Scottish Rite Hospital
  • Built on work of Gillingham, adding key words and discovery learning Dr. Macdonald Critchley (1964) - Answers :UK Neurologist
  • Established term "developmental dyslexia" at

Albert M. Galaburda (1985) - Answers :Discovered the abnormal migration of neural cells during fetal development (glitch) in dyslexic brains causing the right and left hemispheres to be symmetrical. Coined term "brain dysfunctional". Ramalda Spalding - Answers :The Spalding Method, diagnostic, total language arts instruction. The Writing Road to Reading Lauretta Bender (1897-1987) - Answers :Child neuropsychiatrist that worked at Bellevue Hospital in NYC 1930-1956. Creator of the Bender-Gestalt test.

  • among the top five tests used by clinical psychologists • measures perceptual motor skills and development and indicates neurological intactness
  • Used as personality test & test of emotional problems John Defries (1991) - Answers :Started twin study in Colorado looking into the heritability of dyslexia (Pennington continued later) Bruce Pennington (1991) - Answers :Linked dyslexia genetically to the 6th and 15th chromosome "dyslexia both familial and heritable" found through study of twins Paula Tallal (1990's) - Answers :• Supports phonological deficit findings by studying the spelling habits of dyslexic children.
  • They rely heavily on phonological skills for reading.
  • Evidence shows these children do not differentiate blended similar sounds. Marilyn Adams (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :• Senior scientist, Bolt Berenek & Newman at Brown
  • Works closely with Jeanne Chall at Harvard
  • Researcher in the field of reading and writing
    • Phonemic Awareness Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print Miriam Balmuth (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :The Roots of Phonics - an important historical introduction to phonics with a foreword by Jeanne Chall Bonita Blachman

(current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :Professor at Syracuse University Research in the field of phonology and reading

  • Phonoligcal Awareness Created Elkonian cards (kids who couldn't read couldn't segment sounds as well). Regina Cici (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :Director of Language and Learning Disorders Clinic at the University of Maryland Medial System Author of many books and articles on reading and LD Barbara Foorman (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :Professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Houston Extensive research in the field of reading & phonology Richard Masland (1910-2003) (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :Neurologist, dyslexia researcher, educator Early Prevention of School Failure Past President of World Federation of Neurology Margaret Rawson (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :A pioneer in the field of dyslexia. One of the many important contributions is The Many Faces of Dyslexia Joseph Torgensen (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :Principal Investigator, Reading Research, NICH. Professor of Psychology, Florida State University Dianna Clark (current leader in the field of dyslexia and reading) - Answers :Wrote Dyslexia: Theory and Practice of Remedial Instruction Judith Birsh