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Anatomy and Physiology 1 Exam 1 Study Guide: Complete Review with Answers, Exams of Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Phillips School of NursingAnimal Anatomy and Physiology

Ace your A&P 1 Exam 1 with this complete study guide. Covers anatomical terms, homeostasis, cell transport, integumentary system, and bone development. Instant download.

Typology: Exams

2025/2026

Available from 02/24/2026

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1 EXAM 1
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1. anatomy: study of structure and form; derived from Greek word Anatome which
means to cut apart or dissect; Anatomists study structure and form of organims
studying the relationships among parts of the body and the structure of individual
organs
2. physiology: the study of function of the body parts; physiologists examine how
organs and body systems function under normal circumstances as well as how their
functions are altered with medication or disease
3. branches of anatomy: microscopic- structures that cannot be observed to the
unaided eye
(cytology- study of body cells and their internal structure;
histology- study of tissues)
gross anatomy- structures that can be observed to the unaided eye,; macroscopic
(systemic anatomy- anatomy of each body system;
regional anatomy- examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body
as a complete unit)
4. embryology: discipline concerned with developmental changes occuring from
conception to birth
5. comparative A&P: examines similarities and differences of anatomy and physi-
ology of different species
6. pathophysiology: relationship between the functioning of an organ system and
disease or injury to that organ system
7. basic qualities of life: organization- each organism has a complex structure and
order
metabolism- the sum of all chemical reactions to occur within a body; anabolism
(smaller molecules form larger) and catabolism (larger molecules are broken down
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  1. anatomy: study of structure and form; derived from Greek word Anatome which means to cut apart or dissect; Anatomists study structure and form of organims studying the relationships among parts of the body and the structure of individual organs
  2. physiology: the study of function of the body parts; physiologists examine how organs and body systems function under normal circumstances as well as how their functions are altered with medication or disease
  3. branches of anatomy: microscopic- structures that cannot be observed to the unaided eye (cytology- study of body cells and their internal structure; histology- study of tissues) gross anatomy- structures that can be observed to the unaided eye,; macroscopic (systemic anatomy- anatomy of each body system; regional anatomy- examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body as a complete unit)
  4. embryology: discipline concerned with developmental changes occuring from conception to birth
  5. comparative A&P: examines similarities and differences of anatomy and physi- ology of different species
  6. pathophysiology: relationship between the functioning of an organ system and disease or injury to that organ system
  7. basic qualities of life: organization- each organism has a complex structure and order metabolism- the sum of all chemical reactions to occur within a body; anabolism (smaller molecules form larger) and catabolism (larger molecules are broken down

to smaller) growth and development- each organism assimilates materials from its environment and often grows and develops responsiveness- ability to sense and react to stimuli regulation- ability to adjust or direct internal bodily function in the face of environmen- tal changes- homeostasis- ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment

  1. organization of the human body: chemical level- consists of atoms, molecules, macromolecules, and organelles cell level- consists of cells, made up of structures and molecules from chemical level tissue level- made up of tissues which are made of cells organ level- made up of organs made up of 2-3 tissue types that work together for specific, complex functions

sponse to return to the set point (if it's hot, bringing heat to the surface of the skin so the body loses heat, if cold withdrawing blood to vessels, skeletal muscles shiver, no sweat, withdraw foot when stepping on glass)

  1. atoms: protons (+1 charge), nuetrons, and electrons (very little weight) atomic number is based on protons amu is based on protons and nuetrons
  2. types of chemical bonds: ionic bond- bond that transfers electrons, stronger; form salts covalent bond- bond that shares electrons, weaker, can be single, double, triple; form molecular compounds
  3. major elements of the human body: Oxygen (65%), Carbon(18), Hydrogen (10), Nitrogen (3), Calcium, Phosphorous,
  4. cation: positively charged ion
  5. anion: negatively charged ion
  1. electrolyte: substances that both dissolve and dissociate in water that create electric currents
  2. organic molecules: molecules that contain carbon
  3. lipids: type of organic molecule made up of fatty acids and steroids; water insoluble triglycerides- (H2CO)3 (3 glycerol and fatty acid chains (H2C)n ) phospholipids- phosphate, various organic molecules, glycerol, and fatty acids steroids- like cholesterol, 4 hydrocarbon rings eicosanoids- 20 carbons, arachidonic acid
  4. carbohydrate: hydrated carbon--nearly every carbon is attached to a water molecule
  5. monosaccharides: carbohydrate simple sugars with between 3 and 7 carbon atoms, ex: glucose C6H12O6, galactose, fructose, ribose and deoxyribose (5 carbon sugars)
  6. disaccharides: carbohydrates made with two monosaccharides (sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (malt sugar)
  7. trisaccharides: carbohydrates made of three or more monosaccharides (glycon in humans, and starch and cellulose in animals)
  8. sucrose: made up of glucose and fructose
  9. maltose: glucose and glucose
  10. lactose: galactose and glucose
  11. nucleic acids: macromolecules that store or transfer genetic and heriditary information in cells; ex) RNA and DNA, both made up of nucleotide monomers, bonded together covalently in phosphodiester bonds
  12. nucelotides: made up of phosphate group (attached to carbon 3), 5 carbon
  1. acid: donates H+
  2. base: donates OH-
  3. kinetic energy: energy of motion
  4. potential energy: energy of the position
  5. role of enzymes: lower activation energy in chemical reactions, subtrate enters active site, induced fit occurs, enzyme stressed substrate bonds, lowering activation energy and facilitating the chemical reaction to occur
  6. plasma membrae: forms the outer limiting barrier separating the internal con- tents of the cell from the external environment; made up of phospholipid bilayer,
  7. nucleus: largest structure within the cell and is enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Contains genetic material, DNA, the fluid within the nucleus is called the nucleo- plasm, nucleolos is dark staining body
  8. cytoplasm: all cellular contents between the nucleus and cell membrane
  9. cytosol: intracellular fluid, high water content
  10. organelles: little organs- complex organized structures within cells; unique charecteristic shapes and functions
  11. diffusion: net movement of substance from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated
  12. facilitated diffusion: assists small solutes that are charge or polar into the cell past the phospholipid bilayer; occurs through channel mediated diffusion- water filled protein channels; carrier diffusion- assisted by carrier proteins
  13. osmosis: the passive movement of water through a selectively permeable mem- brane; occurs to even out concentrations in and out of cell
  14. active transport: opposes the movement of solutes by diffusion and prevents the distribution of dissolved substances from reaching equilibrium; moves a sub-

stance against a concentration gradient Ex) sodium potassium pump- ion pump concentration gradients- moves Na+ con- tinuously out the cell and K+ into the cell; must expend ATP to do this; maintains electrochemical gradient which gives cell potential energy

  1. isotonic: the cytosol and the solution have the same relative concentration
  2. hypotonic: the solution has a lower concentration of solutes and there is a higher concentration of water then in the cytosol--- entry of water into the cell occurs lysis can occur
  3. hypertonic: higher concentration of solutes and thus a lower concentration of water than in the cytosol-- water will leave the cell; crenation- cell shrinkage
  4. secondary active transport: synport- same direction, antiport- different direc- tion; mvement of Na+ or K+ with its gradient provides enough energy to move substance in either direction

digestive enzymes; digest damaged organelles (autophagy); when a cell is damaged or dies, the lysosomes digest the molecular components of the cell itself-- called autolysis

  1. mitochondria: double membrane bound organelles containing a circular strand of DNA that has genes for producing mitochondrial proteins: synthesize most ATP during aerobic cellular respiration by digestion of fuel molecules (glucose, fatty acids) in presence of oxygen; powerhouse of the cell
  2. ribosomes: organelles composed of both ribosomal RNA and proteins ; bound to a membrane or free in the cytosol; engage in protein synthesis--- bound ribosomes produce proteins that are secreted into cytosol and free ribosomes produce all other proteins
  3. cytoskeleton: maintains cell interstructural suppost; made up of filaments
  4. centrosome: amorphous region adjacent to nucleus; contains a pair of centri- oles; organizes microtubules within the cytoskeleton
  1. proteosomes: barrel shaped proteins that digest other proteins that are dam- aged or no longer needed; signaled by ubiquitin: use ATP
  2. inclusions: aggregates of specific molecules-- temporary storage
  3. peroxisomes: formed in ER or through fission-- detoxify substances through oxidation enzymes; important in liver to detoxify alcohol and other substances; work through beta oxidization-- creates CoA
  4. cilia/flagella: projections from the cell; cilia move mucus in respiratory passage- way; flagella propel cells (sperm)
  5. microvilli: thin microscopic membrane extensions; small intestine surface area to absorb nutrients
  6. membrane junctions: to provide an orderly arrangement between cells these form between adjacent cells (tight junction- completely attaches each cell to neigh- bors; forces substances to move through, not between cell tissues)
  7. transcription: RNA synthesis;formation of a ribonucleic acid copy of a gene from DNA in the nucleus

DNA is unwound; RNA polymerase attaches to promotor region of DNA; RNA polymerase assists to synthesize mRNA so the base pairs bond coordiniately with hydrogen bonds; RNA polymerase reaches terminal region of gene, DNA rewinds into double helix; RNA is copied from template strand making a complementary strand; RNA copies the coding strand

  1. translation: uses RNA for the synthesis of the protein by ribosomes in the cytoplasm; tRNA brings over amino acids to mRNA to synthesize the protein, initiation, elongation, termination
  2. G: bonds with C
  3. A: bonds with U (RNA) or T (DNA)
  1. sebaceous glands: discharges oil to keep skin and hair from drying out
  2. Rickets: caused by vitamin D deficiency (children in factories), weight caused poorly developed bones to assume a bowlegged appearance
  3. Osteoporosis: bone loss due to aging, more common in caucasian women due to lower bone density, maintaining good calcium and vitamin D
  4. Achondroplasea: dwarfism; caused by mutation in DNA replication or inherited gene, long bones stop growing, large head, short limbs, curved spine, abnormal conversion of hyaline cartilage to bone
  5. endochondral ossification: Process of transforming cartilage into bone.
  6. intermembranous ossification: bones growth within a membrane: the mes- enchyme (site of the future dermis), starts during the 8th week of development, produces flat bones in skull, face, and clavicle, begins when mesenchyme thickens, cells develop into osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts, calcification (turns cells into osteocytes), woven bone, then lammellar bone (spongey and compact bone)
  7. growth hormone: (somatrotropin) stimulates liver to produce hormone so- matomedin, resulting in cartilage proliferation at epiphyseal plate and resulting bone elongation
  8. thyroid hormone: stimulates bone growth by stimulating metabolic rate of osteoblasts until puberty
  9. sex hormones: (estrogen and testosterone) begin to be secreted in large amounts at puberty and dramatically acclerate bone growth; ends growth at epiphy- seal plate since bone growth replaces cartilage growth so all cartilage is replaced by bone
  10. glucocoticoids: steroids that impair bone growth in chronically high levels, increase bone loss
  1. serotonin: inhibits osteoprogenitor cells from differentiating into osteoblasts when there are chronically high levels of serotonin`
  2. parathyroid hormone and calcitriol: parathyroid releases PTH; vitamin D converted to calcitroil; work synergistically to release calcium from the bone to the blood; reduce calcium loss into urine in kidneys, release calcium from small intestine into blood; Maintaining calcium homeostasis
  3. calcitonin: inhibits osteoclasts (bone loss), stimulates loss of calcium from urine
  4. interstital growth: long bone's growth in length; dependent on epiphyseal plate; growth is due to growth in hyaline cartilage that ossifies to bone; rate of epiphyseal catilage slows and eventually ends as we age and osteoblast activity increases
  5. appositional growth: occurs within the periosteum; circumferential lamallae develop in the bone (like tree rings); medullary cavity forms in center