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ANP 1111 ASSESSMENTS SET: STRUCTURE-
FUNCTION VALIDATION WITH FULL
SOLUTION AND COMPLETE BIOLOGICAL
MASTERY 2026
◉ How is gray and white matter organized in the spinal cord? Answer: Central cavity surround with gray matter in a butterfly shape, which is surround with white matter ◉ How is gray and white matter organized in the brain? Answer: Central cavity surrounded with gray matter. Some nuclei scattered. outside of cerebrum and cerebellum is covered in gray matter. Rest is white matter. ◉ What are ventricles? Answer: Spaces in the brain filled with cerebral spinal fluid and lined with ependymal cells ◉ What are the four ventricles of the brain? Answer: two lateral ventricles, third ventricle, fourth ventricle ◉ What separates the two lateral ventricles? Answer: septum pellucidum ◉ Where is the third ventricle located? Answer: diencephalon
◉ Where is the fourth ventricle located? Answer: between pons and cerebellum ◉ Where are the lateral ventricles located? Answer: cerebral hemispheres ◉ What connects the third and fourth ventricles? Answer: cerebral aqueduct ◉ What are the 3 apertures and what do they do? Answer: 2 Lateral apertures & 1 median aperture connect the ventricles to the subarachnoid space ◉ What are the lobes of the brain? Answer: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insular ◉ What separates gyri? Answer: sulci ◉ What separates the precentral and the postcentral gyrus? Answer: The Central Sulcus ◉ What is the cerebral cortex and what does it do? Answer: outer layer of the cerebrum, responsible for conscious behaviour ◉ what are the functional areas of the cerebral cortex? Answer: Motor, Sensory & Association
◉ What is Broca's area responsible for? Answer: Preparation of speech. - > Organizes the making of sounds that will be heard as words ◉ What does the frontal eye field do? Answer: controls voluntary eye movements ◉ Where is the primary somatosensory cortex? Answer: postcentral gyrus ◉ What does the primary somatosensory cortex do? Answer: receives sensory inputs from the skin, joints and muscles. Important for proprioception ◉ What is the somatosensory association cortex? Answer: - Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
- Integrates sensory input and determines size, texture, and relationship of parts of objects being felt ◉ What is the primary visual cortex Answer: receives and processes incoming visual information ◉ What is the visual association area? Answer: interprets information acquired through the primary visual cortex
◉ Where is the primary visual cortex located? Answer: posterior tip of occipital lobe ◉ Where is the visual association area located? Answer: surrounds primary visual cortex ◉ What does the primary auditory cortex do? Answer: Evaluates pitch, rhythm and loudness of sound ◉ What does the auditory association area do? Answer: Interprets sounds based on memory. ◉ What is the equilibrium cortex for? Answer: Awareness of balance ◉ Where is the primary auditory cortex located? Answer: superior temporal lobe ◉ Where is the auditory association area located? Answer: Surrounds the primary auditory area ◉ Where is the equilibrium cortex located? Answer: Posterior part of insular lobe. ◉ What is the olfactory cortex for? Answer: Conscious awareness of odours
to sensory input - >puts info together to understand what we see (Recognition of patterns, faces, language). ◉ What is contralateral neglect? Answer: Damage to the posterior association area causes someone to not see a part of them as a part of themself. ◉ What does the limbic association area do? Answer: Provides emotional impact (e.g. danger associated with something). ◉ What side is cerebral dominant? Answer: The hemisphere that is dominant for language ◉ What is cerebral white matter for? Answer: Communication between cerebral areas, between cortex and lower CNS centres ◉ What are commissural fibers? Answer: horizontal fibers that connect gray matter of two hemispheres (Left & Right) ◉ What is the largest commissural fiber? Answer: corpus callosum ◉ What are association fibers? Answer: Fibers that connect areas of the cerebral cortex within the SAME hemisphere (Anterior & Posterior)
◉ What are projection fibers? Answer: To or from cortex to rest of nervous system (Vertical) ◉ What are basal nuclei? Answer: Concentrations of gray matter ◉ What are the three basal nuclei? Answer: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus ◉ What do basal nuclei do? Answer: They receive input from the cortex and provide output to motor parts of the cortex. Also inhibit antagonistic actions by filtering them out and sending only the best response to cortex. ◉ What are traumatic brain injuries? Answer: Brain damage is caused not only by localized injury at the site of the blow but also by ricocheting brain hitting the opposite end of the skull ◉ What is a concussion? Answer: Alteration in brain function, usually temporary following a blow to the head Victim might be dizzy or lose consciousness Can produce over time cumulative damage
Protein accumulates in brain cells and the tissue dies, leading to massive degeneration of the basal nuclei and later of the cerebral cortex. This causes a person to lose control of their feelings, thoughts and/or movements. ◉ How does Parkinson's disease happen? Answer: substantia nigra degenerates - > less inhibitory dopamine released - > basal nuclei become overactive - > persistent tremor, difficulty walking, loss of facial expression, difficulty writing ◉ What is the diencephalon? Answer: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus ◉ Where is the diencephalon located? Answer: Encloses the 3rd ventricle. ◉ What does the thalamus do? Answer: The thalamus is the gateway to the cerebral cortex. It sorts and edits information and directs impulses to appropriate regions of the cortex. Also responsible for mediating sensations, motor activities, cortical arousal, leaning and memory. ◉ What if no information goes through the thalamus? Answer: Coma
◉ What is the hypothalamus for? Answer: Autonomic control, emotional response and behaviour, body temperature regulation, food intake regulation, regulation of water balance and thirst, regulation of sleep-awake cycles, control of the endocrine system ◉ What is the epithalamus responsible for? Answer: Production of melatonin, forms the roof of the third ventricle, choroid plexus is also a part of the epithalamus ◉ What is the brain stem? Answer: midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata ◉ What is the midbrain composed of? Answer: two cerebral peduncles that contain large pyramidal motor tracts, a hollow cerebral aqueduct that runs through the midbrain, periaqueductal gray matter that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct, and corpora quadrigeminal (two superior colliculi, two inferior colliculi), substantial nigra, red nucleus, nuclei part of the reticular formation ◉ What is the periaqueductal gray matter for? Answer: Involved with pain suppression ◉ What are superior colliculi? Answer: visual reflex centres that follow moving objects ◉ What are inferior colliculi? Answer: Auditory reflex centres (e.g. the startle reflex).
◉ What cranial nerves are in the medulla oblongata Answer: XII, IX, X, VIII ◉ what autonomic reflex centres does the medulla oblongata have? Answer: Cardiovascular, respiratory, vomiting, hiccuping, swallowing, coughing, sneezing ◉ How does the hypothalamus overlap with the medulla oblongata? Answer: The hypothalamus controls most visceral functions by relaying instructions through the medullary centres. ◉ What does the cerebellum do? Answer: Processes information from other parts of the CNS and influences the timing & patterns of skeletal muscle contraction for unconscious daily movements ◉ Where do the pyramids decussate? Answer: medulla oblongata ◉ What connects the cerebellum symmetrically? Answer: Vermis ◉ How does the cerebellum work? Answer: Has overlapping sensory & motor maps of the body, which allows for multiple muscle groups to be coordinated. Also coordinates proprioceptive information, planning information and instructions to cortex. Also has flocculonodular lobes that receives input from equilibrium sensors.
◉ What does ipsilateral mean? Answer: Same side (no crossing over) ◉ What does the superior cerebellar peduncle do? Answer: connect midbrain to cerebellum, fibers originate from neurons in cerebellar nuclei and project to the cerebral motor cortex via thalamus. ◉ What does the middle cerebellar peduncle do? Answer: Sends messages from the pons to cerebellar neurons. Informs cerebellum of voluntary motor activities initiated by motor cortex ◉ What does the inferior cerebellar peduncle do? Answer: Sends info to cerebellum from muscle proprioceptors & vestibular nuclei of the brain stem. ◉ How does the cerebellum fine-tune motor activity? Answer: The frontal cortex motor association area sends a message indicating intent to initiate action to cerebellum - > Cerebellum also receives proprioceptive, visual & equilibrium info. - > Cerebellar cortex receives info and determines best way to coordinate force, direction, extent of muscle contraction - > Via superior peduncles, cerebellum sends info to cerebral motor cortex and to brain stem nuclei. ◉ Where is the limbic system located? Answer: medial aspect of each cerebral hemisphere and diencephalon. Encircles the upper part of the brain stem ◉ What is the limbic system? Answer: amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus
◉ What is the filium terminale? Answer: a pia mater-covered conus extension ◉ what do the denticulate ligaments have? Answer: indents to hold the spinal cord in place ◉ what do filium terminale do? Answer: Anchor the spinal cord ◉ What is the cauda equina? Answer: collection of fiber-like nerve roots beyond L1/L ◉ Describe anterior horns Answer: Nerve cell bodies of somatic motor neurons - axons exit through ventral roots (Outgoing) ◉ Describe posterior horns Answer: The axons of sensory neurons and the cell bodies of interneurons are located in the posterior horns. ◉ What is a spinal nerve? Answer: fused dorsal and ventral roots ◉ What are dorsal root ganglia? Answer: Afferent fibers from peripheral sensory receptors from dorsal roots. The dorsal root ganglia house cell bodies of their associated sensory neurons, and their axons enter the spinal cord to travel to higher cord/brain centres or to synapse with interneurons in posterior horns at the level they enter.
◉ Are the dorsal and ventral roots part of the CNS or PNS? Answer: PNS ◉ What are dorsal horns for? Answer: incoming messages (receive input from somatic and visceral sensory neurons). Associated with dorsal roots ◉ What are lateral horns for? Answer: autonomic (visceral) motor neurons. Associated with ventral roots. ◉ What are ventral horns for? Answer: somatic motor neurons. Associated with ventral roots. ◉ What does white matter in the spinal cord do? Answer: allow communication between different parts of the spinal cord and spinal cord and brain ◉ What are the three tracts in the spinal cord? Answer: ascending (up to higher center (sensory inputs), descending (down to the cord from the brain or within the cord to lowr levels (motor outputs) and transverse (across from one side of the cord to the other (commissural fibers) ◉ What do the meninges do? Answer: Covers and protect the CNS, protect blood vessels & enclose venous sinuses, contain CSF, form partitions within skull.
◉ What are arachnoid granulations for? Answer: accumulation of CSF ◉ What is the pia mater? Answer: delicate CT and tiny blood vessels that cling tightly to the brain and follows the convolutions of the brain ◉ What's the difference of meningitis and encephalitis? Answer: Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges, while encephalitis is when the inflammation spreads to the brain. ◉ What does CSF do? Answer: cushions, protects and nourishes the brain ◉ What are choroid plexuses? Answer: These are clusters of capillaries enclosed by ependymal cells. Choroid plexuses are the source of CSF and also clean CSF. ◉ Where are choroid plexuses found? Answer: roof of ventricles ◉ How much CSF is produced every 8 hours? Answer: 150 mL. ◉ What are the three layers of the blood-brain barrier? Answer: i) continuous epithelium of capillary wall (impermeable tight junctions)
ii) thick basal lamina surrounding external face of capillary - > contains enzymes that destroy chemicals like epinephrine and norepinephrine, iii) bulbous feet of astrocytes + smooth-muscle-like cells call pericytes (maintain endothelial cells & stimulate formation of very tight junctions) ◉ What gets through the blood brain barrier? Answer: glucose, essential amino acids, some electrolytes, fats, fatty acids, oxygen, CO2, other fat-soluble molecules ◉ Where is the blood brain barrier the most permeable and why? Answer: Around the vomitting centre and hypothalamus: Monitor for homeostatic imbalances. ◉ What are the twelve cranial nerves? Answer: I. Olfactory II. Optic III. Oculomotor IV. Trochlear V. Trigeminal VI. Abducens VII. Facial VIII. Vestibulocochlear IX. Glossopharyngeal X. Vagus XI. Accessory
