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AP Human Geography Notes General Geography: US road map is not a thematic map Every meridian is the same length and has the same beginning and end According to environmental determinism, the physical environment causes social development Highest density: most in numbers Highest concentration: closest together Cloropleth map uses shading Five Themes of Geography: Location: Relative location Absolute location Place: Human Characteristics Physical Characteristics Human-Environmental Interaction: Humans adapt to the environment Humans modify the environment Humans depend on the environment Movement People Goods Ideas Regions Formal (uniform) Functional (nodal) Vernacular (perceptual) Culture: Customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a group of people in tradition Hearth: Where an idea originates Acculturation: The spread of cultural traits from one society to another Globalization of Culture: Globalization due to interchanging beliefs and customs Globalization of Economy: Globalization due to business
Reference Maps: Regular maps showing cities, boundaries, mountains, or roads Thematic Maps: Maps highlighting a particular feature or a single variable such as temperature, city, size, or acreage in potatoes (Gives extra information) Isoline Maps: Show lines that connect points of equal value Isolines are on topographic maps Choropleth Maps: Show the level of some variable within predefined regions, such as counties, states, or countries Dot Maps: Use a dot to represent the occurrence of some phenomenon in order to depict variation in density in a given area Cartograms: Maps that have distorted population Resolution: The amount of details or depth of a map Scale: Generally, the relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole, specifically the relationship between the size of an object on a map and the size of the actual feature on Earth’s surface The three main types of scales are ratio (fraction) scales, bar scales, and written scales Small Scale: Depicts a large area (such as the state of Arizona) but with less detail Large Scale: Depicts a small area (such as downtown Phoenix) with great detail Cartography: The science of making maps Projection: The system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat map The most common type is the Robinson Projection However, maps depicting the entire world can distort shape, distance, relative size, and direction Toponym: The name given to a portion of Earth’s surface Has to be a natural feature Site: The physical character of a place
The total number of people divided by the total land area Physiological Density: The total number of people divided by all arable land (farmland) Agricultural Density: The total number of farmers (and family) divided by all arable land Concentration: The spread of something over a given area Concentration tells you where something is Can be clustered or dispersed Pattern: The geometric or regular arrangement of something in a study area Diffusion: The spreading of a feature or trend from one place to another over time Relocation Diffusion: The spread of a feature or trend through physical movement of people from one place to another. Does not have to grow in numbers. AIDS is an example of relocation diffusion. Expansion Diffusion: The spread of a feature or trend among people from one area to another in a snowballing process. Involves growing numbers. Hierarchical Diffusion – The spread of a feature or trend from one key person or node of authority or power to other people or places. Example- grunge music. Contagious Diffusion – The rapid, widespread diffusion of a feature or trend throughout a population. Example- influenza (flu). Stimulus Diffusion – The spread of an underlying principle or thought process, even though a specific characteristic is rejected. Examples- Apple computers/Martin Luther King Jr. (he is dead but his thought process still lives on). Cartography: The science of map making Toponym: A name given to a place on earth. Scale: The relationship to a feature’s size on a map to its actual size on earth. Fractional Scale – numerical ratio 1:24, Written Scale – description in words “1 inch equals 1 mile” Graphic Scale – bar line showing distance 0 5 10 MILES Site: The physical characteristic of a place Situation : The relative location of a place
Meridian: Lines of longitude running in the north-south direction ending at the poles Parallel: Lines of latitude parallel to the equator Time Zone: Greenwich Mean Time – The time at the prime meridian International Date Line – 180 degrees from Prime Meridian – 24 hours Telling time from longitude – every 15 degrees. From Prime Meridian going west loose 1 hour/ degrees – east gain 1 hour/15 degrees Regions: Formal (Uniform) – Everyone shared distinct characteristics Functional (Nodal) – Area organized around a focal point Vernacular – A perceptual region – beliefs and cultural identity Spatial Association: The distribution of one phenomenon that is scientifically related to the location of another phenomenon Spatial Distribution: The arrangement of phenomenon across the earth’s surface Distribution: The arrangement of a feature in a space Three types – density, concentration, pattern Density: The frequency of which something occurs. Arithmetic – the total number of objects in an area Physiological – the number of persons per unit area of suitable agricultural land Agricultural – number of farmers per area of farmland Concentration: The spread of something over a given area Clustered – close together Dispersed – far apart Pattern: The arrangement of objects in space Culture: Customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a group of people in tradition Hearth: Where an idea originates Acculturation: The spread of cultural traits from one society to another
Southeast Asia: The world’s third largest population cluster is in southeast Asia. A half billion people live in southeast Asia. The islands are: Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Borneo), Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines. Western Europe: World’s fourth largest population cluster. Contains one ninth of the world’s population. Most of Europe’s people live in cities. This region ranges from Monaco to Russia. Sparsely Populated Regions: Dry Lands- When an area is dry for farming not many people want to live there. These areas cover about 20% of the earth’s land surface. The largest desert region is the Sahara. Deserts lack sufficient water to grow crops to feed many people. Wet Lands- Wet lands are lands that receive high levels of precipitation. These areas are unfavorable for human life. A combination of rain and heat depletes nutrients from the soil which prevents growing crops. Cold lands- Cold lands are areas that are covered with ice or have permanently frozen ground. These regions have less precipitation than some deserts. These polar regions are unsuitable for crops and animals. High lands- Few people live at high elevations. The highest mountains in the world are steep, snowy, and sparsely settled. Some people prefer to live at higher elevations if the temperature and precipitation are uncomfortable at lower elevations. Population Increase: Doubling time- The number of years needed to double a population. Total fertility rate- The average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years. Infant mortality rate- The annual number of deaths of infants under one year old. Life expectancy measures the number of years a newborn will be expected to live. The current estimated world human population is 6,379,157,361. This figure is extremely precise, however, since there is no complete database on the world's population, and humans are constantly being born (at the rate of about 3 per second) and dying. However, it is clear that the world's population continues to grow, in other words, more people are being born than people dying. Causes of Population Increase: Crude birth rate (CBR)- The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Ex: a (CBR) of 20 means that for every 1,000 people in a country, 20 babies are born over a one year period.
Crude death rate (CDR)- total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. The annual number of deaths per 1,000 population. Natural increase rate (NIR)- the percentage by which a population grows in a year. To compute you subtract CBR from CDR. Natural Increase: Natural- means a country’s growth rate excludes migration. About 80 million people are added to the world’s population each year. The historic high was in 1989 with 87 million. The number of people added each year has dropped slower than the NIR because the population base is much higher now than in the past. Fertility: TFR total fertility rate- the average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years (15-49). Mortality: Two useful measures of mortality in addition to the crude death rate already discussed are the infant mortality rate and life expectancy. Infant mortality rate (IMR)- the annual number of deaths of infants under one year of age, compared with total live births. Life expectancy- the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live at current mortality levels. Population Pyramid: A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex Population pyramids can be used to demonstrate the demographics of a certain area, and can be used as an indication of the development of a certain area The Demographic Transition: The Basics- There are four stages to the demographic transition: Stage 1-: Low Growth Stage 2: High Growth Stage 3: Moderate Growth Stage 4: Low Growth All countries are in one stage or another of the demographic transition. Once a country has entered a stage, it cannot go back down to a previous stage. Stage 1: No countries are still in stage 1. Most of humanity’s several-hundred-thousand-year occupancy of Earth was characterized by stage 1 of the demographic transition. Crude birth and death rates vary yearly but over time they were comparable. National increase rate was essentially zero, and world population was constant at about half a million. During this period primary food relied on hunting and gathering. As food became easier to obtain, population increased, but when food became more difficult to obtain, the population decreased. About 8000 BC the population became to grow by several thousand per year.
Stage 5: Currently no Stage 5 Experts suggesting that there will be in the near future Characterized by a negative population growth This will first occur in Western Europe and make its way through most MDCs. Malthus Theory: States that the world will get wiped out by over population, starvation, and disease (mainly the ratio of people to food). Thomas Malthus stated this in 1798 in his book- An Essay on the Principle of Population. Today: 1 person, 1 unit of food 25 years from now: 2 people, 2 units of food 50 years from now: 4 persons, 3 units of food 75 years from now: 8 people, 4 units of food 100 years from now: 16 people, 5 units of food Back in the 17 & 1800s, they didn’t have the same farming technology and methods we have today. There wasn’t as much medicine to cure diseases. Lester Brown a Stanford University biologist, said Malthus made critical points but missed a couple important points, gains in land productivity, and the preference for eating “higher up the food chain”. Example- In Sub-Saharan Africa, drought, poverty, and disease (mainly AIDS) are reducing life expectancy. The population is bigger than the amount of arable land-which causes more than half of the children to be under-nourished or mal-nourished. Neo-Malthusians: Study Malthus’ theory They point out that the amount of farmland is decreasing while the population is increasing. Global Warming could interfere with food production. Both extensification and intensification of agriculture will lead to land degradation. Malthus’s Critics: Many geographers believe Malthus’ theory is very pessimistic because they based on a belief that the world’s supply is fixed not expanding. Malthus did not foresee the advancement in technology that would help mankind survive. Census- A complete enumeration of a population. Crude Birth Rate- The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Crude Death Rate- The total number of deaths in a year fro every 1,000 people alive in the society. Demographic Transition- The process of change in a society’s population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population. Demography- The scientific study of population characteristics.
Dependency Ratio- The number of people under the age of 15 and over age 64, compared to the number of people active in the labor force. Doubling Time- The number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase. Epidemiologic Transition- Distinctive causes of death in each stage of the demographic transition. Epidemiology- Branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases that affect large numbers of people. Ecumene- The portion of Earth’s surface occupied by permanent human settlement. Industrial Revolution- A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. Infant Mortality Rate- The total number of deaths in a year among infants under one year old for every 1,000 live births in a society. Life Expectancy- The average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live. Medical Revolution- Medical technology invented in Europe and North America that is diffused to the poorer countries of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Improved medical practices have eliminated many of the traditional causes of death in poorer countries and enabled more people to live longer and healthier lives. Natural Increase Rate- The percentage growth of a population in a year, computed as the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Overpopulation- The number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living. Pandemic- Disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population. Population Pyramid- A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex. Sex Ratio- The number of males per 100 females in the population. Total Fertility Rate- The average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years. Zero Population Growth- A decline of the total fertility rate to the point where the natural increase rate equals zero. Migration: Migration: Form of relocation diffusion involving permanent move to a new location
International & Internal Migration: International Migration- The permanent movement from one country to another. Internal Migration- Permanent movement within a particular country. Examples - International Migration- Moving to Russia from the United States, or from Africa to Australia. Internal Migration- Moving to Arkansas from Michigan, or from Georgia to California. Internal Migration- People living in India must migrate to a different part of India to escape the flooding that occurs near them. International Migration- Some Jewish people were able to escape the Nazis by migrating to the different countries away from them. Internal Migration: Permanent movement within a country. Divided into two types- Interregional migration - movement from one region of a country to another. Rust Belt and Sun Belt Intraregional migration - movement within on region International Migration: Divided into two types- Voluntary migration - implies that migrant has chosen to move for economic improvements. Forced migration - the migrant has been compelled to move by cultural factors. Economic push and pull factors usually induce voluntary migration. Whereas cultural factors usually compel forced migration Net Migration: The difference between the level of immigration and the level of emigration. In-Migration: synonym of immigration, moving into a country Out-migration: leaving a country Countries with net out-migrations include Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Countries with net in-migrations include North America, Europe, and Oceania. Guest Workers: Workers who migrate to the MDCs of Northern and Western Europe, usually from Southern and Eastern Europe or from North Africa, in search of higher-paying jobs Temporary Migration for Work:
- Guest Workers – Citizens of poor communities who obtain jobs in Western Europe and the Middle East.
- Time – Contract Workers - Recruited for a fixed period of time to work in mines or on plantations. European Guest Workers - In Europe, these workers are protected by Minimum Wage laws and union contracts - About 700,000 of these workers enter Europe legally - 500,000 workers enter illegally - The United Kingdom restricts the ability for foreigners to get work permits. - If you are allowed to work in another country there is usually a time limit for how long you can stay for your desired assignment. Distinguishing Between Economic Migrants and Refugees
- Very difficult to distinguish between those seeking economic opportunities and refugees fleeing from persecution etc.
- In Western Europe, Canada, and the US economic migrants are not usually admitted however refugees receive priority in admission. Intervening Obstacles
- Immigrants may not always get to there destination because of an environmental or cultural obstacle.
- Also, transportation is a problem with immigration. It is difficult to meet all the requirements to be able to travel in any way to a new country.
- Oceans and lakes are an obstacle in migration because people are unable to cross the bodies of water.
- Motor vehicles and airplanes are the easiest way to go from one place to another, but it is also the hardest requirements to meet when traveling. Countries Attitudes Towards New Immigrants
- Making it to the desired country isn’t always the end of the complications, once the immigrants reach the country, the citizens may dislike the new people because of cultural differences.
- The guest workers are not always excepted and can be treated unfairly. Vietnam: The long Vietnam War ended in 1975 when Communist-controlled North Vietnam captured South Vietnam’s capital city of Saigon. The US evacuated from Saigon several thousand people who had been closely identified with the American position during the war and who were therefore vulnerable to persecution after the Communist victory. A second surge of Vietnamese boat people began in the late 1980s. Their most popular destinations were Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand. 800,000 Vietnamese have reached the US since the end of the Vietnam War, another 1 million in other countries. Pop & Folk Culture: Popular Culture: Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics Folk Culture: Culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups Origin of Folk Cultures: Folk customs often have anonymous hearths, originating from anonymous sources, at unknown dates, through unidentified originators Origin of Pop Cultures: Popular culture is most often a product of the economically more developed countries, especially in North America, Western Europe, and Japan Transition from Folk to Pop Culture: Most of the world turns from folk to pop culture. Folk culture diffuses slowly to other locations through the process of migration. Popular culture diffuses rapidly across Earth to locations with a variety of physical conditions. Taboo: A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom
(Major) 1 Mandarin Sino-Tibetan Chinese Characters 885 China, Malaysia, Taiwan 2 English Indo- European Latin 332 USA, UK, Australia, Canada, New Zealand 3 Spanish Indo- European Latin 322 South America, Central America, Spain 4 Arabic Afro-Asiatic Arabic 235 ME, Arabia, North Africa 5 Bengali Indo- European Bengali 189 Bangladesh, Eastern India 6 Hindi Indo- European Devanagari 182 North and Central India 7 Portuguese Indo- European Latin 170 Brazil, Portugal, Southern Africa 8 Russian Indo- European Cyrillic 170 Russia, Central Asia 9 Japanese Altaic Chinese Characters and 2 Japanese Alphabets 125 Japan 10 German Indo- European Latin 98 Germany, Austria, Central Europe Ideograms: The system of writing used in China and other East Asian countries in which each symbol represents an idea or a concept rather than a specific sound, as is the case with letters in English Religion: Religion, Culture, and Physical Environment People care deeply about their religion and draw from religion their core values and beliefs, an essential element of the definition of culture. Religious values are important in understanding not only how people identify themselves, as was the case with language, but also the meaningful ways that they organize the landscape. Like language, migrants take their religion with them to new locations, but although migrants typically learn the language of the new location, they retain their religion. Religion Hierarchy:
A hierarchical religion has a well-defined geographic structure and organizes territory into local administrative units (has “rankings” amongst the religion). A good example is Roman Catholicism (Pope, Cardinals, Bishops). Universalizing Religion: A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location 3 Biggs – Christianity, Islam, Buddhism Christianity: Origin – Israel 2 billion adherents Known as Christians Mainly in Western Hemisphere and Europe Foundation based on the Ten Commandments Major branches- Catholics (50%). Protestants (25%), Eastern Orthodox (10%) Islam: Origin – Saudi Arabia 1.3 billion adherents Known as Muslims Foundation based on the Five Pillars Major branches- Sunnis (83%), Shiites (16%), Kurds (1%) Buddhism: Origin – NE India/Nepal 370 million adherents Known as Buddhists Mainly in China and SE Asia Foundation based on the Four Noble Truths Major branches- Mahayanists (56%), Theravadistis (38%), Tantrayanists (8%) Different from Christianity and Islam- you may also participate in another existing religion Ethnic Religion: A religion with a relatively concentrated spatial distribution whose principles are likely to be based on the physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated 2 Biggs – Hinduism and Judaism Hinduism: Origin – India/Pakistan 800 million adherents (3rd^ largest overall) 97% live in India (80% of India’s pop.) Believe in several gods – Brahma being the main one Follow the Caste System Believe in Karma and Reincarnation Judaism: Origin – Israel 14 million adherents Mainly clustered in Israel and the US Also prevent in former USSR (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania) Have similar roots as Christianity and Islam Ireland: The most troublesome religious boundary in Western Europe lies on Ireland. Most of Ireland is Roman Catholic, but Northern Ireland is 58% Protestant and 42% Roman Catholic.
Apartheid is the physical separation of different races into different areas. The white-dominated government of South Africa repealed the apartheid laws in 1991. In 1994, Nelson Mandela became president of South Africa. South Africa the country- Black- 76% White- 13% Asian- 3% Mixed- 13% Each with different legal status Nationality/Nationalism: Nationality is identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there. Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality. Nation-State: A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality Have by far one dominate ethnicity/nationality – 1 country, 1 ethnicity Self Determinism (Separatism): The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves Quebec (Province in Canada) – early 1980s strong French Australia Israel/Palestine Native Americans Multi-Ethnic States/Multi-National States: Multi-Ethnic state – state that contains more than one ethnicity Don’t necessarily try to appeal to every ethnicity – sometimes happy, sometimes not Belgium = (Dutch = Flemish = North + French = Walloons = South) Multi-National state – state that contains two or more ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that agree to coexist peacefully by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities Try to appeal to every nationality/ethnicity (by giving them jobs) – get along just fine United Kingdom = England + Scotland + Whales + N. Ireland Block Busting: Real estate agents telling people that blacks or Indians were going to move next door to them so they could buy the peoples’ house for very cheap and sell it for double. Balkanization: States/countries breaking down through ethnic conflict – constant conflict Balkanized: A geographic area that can’t be stable/happy because there are too many ethnicities and too much ugly history between them. Servia Boznia Balkan Peninsula
Political Geography: Colonies, Early European States, and Ancient and Medieval States: A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. The modern movement to divide the world into states originated in Europe. Political unity in the ancient world reached its height with the establishment of the Roman Empire, which controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The European portion of the Roman Empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. The development of states can be traced to the ancient Middle East, in an area known as the Fertile crescent. The first states to evolve in Mesopotamia were known as city-states – sovereign states that comprise a town and the surrounding countryside. Modern Colonies: Today only a handful of colonies remain. Nearly all are islands in the Pacific Ocean or Caribbean Sea State Shapes: Compact State- a state in which the distance form the center to any boundary does not vary significantly Fragmented State- a state that includes several discontinuous pieces of territory Elongated State- a state with a long, narrow shape Prorupted State- an otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension Perforated State- a state that completely surrounds another one Boundaries: Can see on a map: Physical- natural boundaries (oceans, rivers, mountains) Geometric- main official lines Can’t see on a map: Culture Religious Language Federal State: An internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government (have a say so) Centripetal forces Example- US Unitary State: An internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of central government officials (not necessarily bad, but no say so- only government) Centrifugal forces Example- UK United Nations: A cooperation under the political category Deals with military, economic, agricultural, etc. European Union:
