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The Mona Lisa (1503–1517) by Leonardo da Vinci is one of the world's most recognizable paintings.
An artistic depiction of a group of rhinos was made in the Chauvet Cave 30,000 to 32,000 years ago.
Painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support").[1]^ The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used.
In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action (the final work is called "a painting"). The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, and even whole objects.
Painting is an important form in the visual arts, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture (as in gestural painting), narration (as in narrative art), and abstraction (as in abstract art).[2]^ Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in still life and landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism) or political in nature (as in Artivism).
A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha (or other images of Eastern religious origin).
History Elements of painting Color and tone Non-traditional elements Rhythm Aesthetics and theory Painting media Oil Pastel Acrylic Watercolor Ink Hot wax or encaustic Fresco Gouache Enamel Spray paint Tempera Water miscible oil paint Digital painting Painting styles Western Modernism Impressionism
Contents
Prehistoric cave painting of aurochs (French: Bos primigenius primigenius ) ), Lascaux, France
Abstract styles Outsider art Photorealism Surrealism East Asian Islamic Indian African Contemporary art 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s Types of painting Allegory Bodegón Figure painting Illustration painting Landscape painting Portrait painting Still life Veduta See also Notes Further reading
The oldest known paintings are approximately 40,000 years old, found in both the Franco-Cantabrian region in western Europe, and in the caves in the district of Maros (Sulawesi, Indonesia). Cave paintings were then found in Kalimantan, Indonesia in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave believed to be 40,000 - 52,000 years old. More recently, in 2021, cave art of a pig found in an Indonesian island, and dated to over 45, years, has been reported.[3][4]^ However, the earliest evidence of the act of painting has been discovered in two rock-shelters in Arnhem Land, in northern Australia. In the lowest layer of material at these sites, there are used pieces of ochre estimated to be 60,000 years old. Archaeologists have also found a fragment of rock painting preserved in a limestone rock-shelter in the Kimberley region of North-Western Australia, that is dated 40,000 years old.[5]^ There are examples of cave paintings all over the world—in Indonesia, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, China, Australia, Mexico,[6]^ etc. In Western cultures, oil painting and watercolor painting have rich and complex traditions in style and subject matter. In the East, ink and color ink historically predominated the choice of media, with equally rich and complex traditions.
The invention of photography had a major impact on painting. In the decades after the first photograph was produced in 1829, photographic processes improved and became more widely practiced, depriving painting of much of its historic purpose to provide an accurate record of the observable world. A series of art movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries—notably Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, and Dadaism—challenged the Renaissance view of the world. Eastern and African painting, however, continued a long history of stylization and did not undergo an equivalent transformation at the same time.
History
Jean Metzinger, La danse (Bacchante) (c.1906), oil on canvas, 73 x 54 cm, Kröller-Müller Museum
Piet Mondrian, Composition en rouge, jaune, bleu et noir (1921), Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
Female painter sitting on a campstool and painting a statue of Dionysus or Priapus onto a panel which is held by a boy. Fresco from Pompeii, 1st century
Rhythm, for artists such as Piet Mondrian,[12][13]^ is important in painting as it is in music. If one defines rhythm as "a pause incorporated into a sequence", then there can be rhythm in paintings. These pauses allow creative force to intervene and add new creations—form, melody, coloration. The distribution of form or any kind of information is of crucial importance in the given work of art, and it directly affects the aesthetic value of that work. This is because the aesthetic value is functionality dependent, i.e. the freedom (of movement) of perception is perceived as beauty. Free flow of energy, in art as well as in other forms of "techne", directly contributes to the aesthetic value.[12]
Music was important to the birth of abstract art since music is abstract by nature—it does not try to represent the exterior world, but expresses in an immediate way the inner feelings of the soul. Wassily Kandinsky often used musical terms to identify his works; he called his most spontaneous paintings "improvisations" and described more elaborate works as "compositions". Kandinsky theorized that "music is the ultimate teacher,"[14]^ and subsequently embarked upon the first seven of his ten Compositions. Hearing tones and chords as he painted, Kandinsky theorized that (for example), yellow is the color of middle C on a brassy trumpet; black is the color of closure, and the end of things; and that combinations of colors produce vibrational frequencies, akin to chords played on a piano. In 1871 the young Kandinsky learned to play the piano and cello.[15][16]^ Kandinsky's stage design for a performance of Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition illustrates his "synaesthetic" concept of a universal correspondence of forms, colors and musical sounds.[17]
Music defines much of modernist abstract painting. Jackson Pollock underscores that interest with his 1950 painting Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) .[18]
Aesthetics is the study of art and beauty; it was an important issue for 18th- and 19th- century philosophers such as Kant and Hegel. Classical philosophers like Plato and Aristotle also theorized about art and painting in particular. Plato disregarded painters (as well as sculptors) in his philosophical system; he maintained that painting cannot depict the truth—it is a copy of reality (a shadow of the world of ideas) and is nothing but a craft, similar to shoemaking or iron casting.[19]^ By the time of Leonardo, painting had become a closer representation of the truth than painting was in Ancient Greece. Leonardo da Vinci, on the contrary, said that "Italian: La Pittura è cosa mentale " ("English: painting is a thing of the mind").[20]^ Kant distinguished between Beauty and the Sublime, in terms that clearly gave priority to the former. Although he did not refer to painting in particular, this concept was taken up by painters such as J.M.W. Turner and Caspar David Friedrich.
Hegel recognized the failure of attaining a universal concept of beauty and, in his aesthetic essay, wrote that painting is one of the three "romantic" arts, along with Poetry and Music, for its symbolic, highly intellectual purpose.[21][22]^ Painters who have written theoretical works on painting include Kandinsky and Paul Klee.[23][24] In his essay, Kandinsky maintains that painting has a spiritual value, and he attaches primary colors to essential feelings or concepts, something that Goethe and other writers had already tried to do.
Aesthetics and theory
Nino Pisano, Apelles or the Art of painting in detail (1334–1336); relief of the Giotto's Bell Tower in Florence, Italy
Honoré Daumier, The Painter (1808– 1879), oil on panel with visible brushstrokes
Maurice Quentin de La Tour, Portrait of Louis XV of France (1748), pastel
Iconography is the study of the content of paintings, rather than their style. Erwin Panofsky and other art historians first seek to understand the things depicted, before looking at their meaning for the viewer at the time, and finally analyzing their wider cultural, religious, and social meaning.[25]
In 1890, the Parisian painter Maurice Denis famously asserted: "Remember that a painting—before being a warhorse, a naked woman or some story or other—is essentially a flat surface covered with colors assembled in a certain order."[26]^ Thus, many 20th-century developments in painting, such as Cubism, were reflections on the means of painting rather than on the external world—nature—which had previously been its core subject. Recent contributions to thinking about painting have been offered by the painter and writer Julian Bell. In his book What is Painting? , Bell discusses the development, through history, of the notion that paintings can express feelings and ideas.[27]^ In Mirror of The World, Bell writes:
A work of art seeks to hold your attention and keep it fixed: a history of art urges it onwards, bulldozing a highway through the homes of the imagination.[28]
Different types of paint are usually identified by the medium that the pigment is suspended or embedded in, which determines the general working characteristics of the paint, such as viscosity, miscibility, solubility, drying time, etc.
Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments that are bound with a medium of drying oil, such as linseed oil, which was widely used in early modern Europe. Often the oil was boiled with a resin such as pine resin or even frankincense; these were called 'varnishes' and were prized for their body and gloss. Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. The transition began with Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe, and by the height of the Renaissance oil painting techniques had almost completely replaced tempera paints in the majority of Europe.
Pastel is a painting medium in the form of a stick, consisting of pure powdered pigment and a binder.[29]^ The pigments used in pastels are the same as those used to produce all colored art media, including oil paints; the binder is of a neutral hue and low saturation. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process.[30]^ Because the surface of a pastel painting is fragile and easily smudged, its preservation requires protective measures such as framing under glass; it may also be sprayed with a fixative. Nonetheless, when made with permanent pigments and properly cared for, a pastel painting may endure unchanged for centuries. Pastels are not susceptible, as are paintings made with a fluid medium, to the cracking and discoloration that result from changes in the color, opacity, or dimensions of the medium as it dries.
Acrylic paint is fast drying paint containing pigment suspension in acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints can be diluted with water, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted (with water) or modified with acrylic gels, media, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor or an oil painting, or have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other
Painting media
Oil
Pastel
Acrylic
White Angel (fresco), Mileševa monastery, Serbia
Jean de Court (attributed), painted Limoges enamel dish in detail (mid-16th century), Waddesdon Bequest, British Museum
Gouache is a water-based paint consisting of pigment and other materials designed to be used in an opaque painting method. Gouache differs from watercolor in that the particles are larger, the ratio of pigment to water is much higher, and an additional, inert, white pigment such as chalk is also present. This makes gouache heavier and more opaque, with greater reflective qualities. Like all watermedia, it is diluted with water.[31]
Enamels are made by painting a substrate, typically metal, with powdered glass; minerals called color oxides provide coloration. After firing at a temperature of 750–850 degrees Celsius (1380–1560 degrees Fahrenheit), the result is a fused lamination of glass and metal. Unlike most painted techniques, the surface can be handled and wetted Enamels have traditionally been used for decoration of precious objects,[32]^ but have also been used for other purposes. Limoges enamel was the leading centre of Renaissance enamel painting, with small religious and mythological scenes in decorated surrounds, on plaques or objects such as salts or caskets. In the 18th century, enamel painting enjoyed a vogue in Europe, especially as a medium for portrait miniatures.[33]^ In the late 20th century, the technique of porcelain enamel on metal has been used as a durable medium for outdoor murals.[34]
Aerosol paint (also called spray paint) is a type of paint that comes in a sealed pressurized container and is released in a fine spray mist when depressing a valve button. A form of spray painting, aerosol paint leaves a smooth, evenly coated surface. Standard sized cans are portable, inexpensive and easy to store. Aerosol primer can be applied directly to bare metal and many plastics.
Speed, portability and permanence also make aerosol paint a common graffiti medium. In the late 1970s, street graffiti writers' signatures and murals became more elaborate and a unique style developed as a factor of the aerosol medium and the speed required for illicit work. Many now recognize graffiti and street art as a unique art form and specifically manufactured aerosol paints are made for the graffiti artist. A stencil protects a surface, except the specific shape to be painted. Stencils can be purchased as movable letters, ordered as professionally cut logos or hand-cut by artists.
Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder medium (usually a glutinous material such as egg yolk or some other size). Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium. Tempera paintings are very long-lasting, and examples from the first centuries CE still exist. Egg tempera was a primary method of painting until after 1500 when it was superseded by the invention of oil painting. A paint commonly called tempera (though it is not) consisting of pigment and glue size is commonly used and referred to by some manufacturers in America as poster paint.
Water miscible oil paints (also called "water soluble" or "water-mixable") is a modern variety of oil paint engineered to be thinned and cleaned up with water, rather than having to use chemicals such as turpentine. It can be mixed and applied using the same techniques as traditional oil-based paint, but while still wet it can be effectively removed from brushes, palettes, and
Gouache
Enamel
Spray paint
Tempera
Water miscible oil paint
Claude Monet's 1872 Impression, Sunrise inspired the name of the movement
rags with ordinary soap and water. Its water solubility comes from the use of an oil medium in which one end of the molecule has been altered to bind loosely to water molecules, as in a solution.
Digital painting is a method of creating an art object (painting) digitally or a technique for making digital art on the computer. As a method of creating an art object, it adapts traditional painting medium such as acrylic paint, oils, ink, watercolor, etc. and applies the pigment to traditional carriers, such as woven canvas cloth, paper, polyester, etc. by means of software driving industrial robotic or office machinery (printers). As a technique, it refers to a computer graphics software program that uses a virtual canvas and virtual painting box of brushes, colors, and other supplies. The virtual box contains many instruments that do not exist outside the computer, and which give a digital artwork a different look and feel from an artwork that is made the traditional way. Furthermore, digital painting is not 'computer-generated' art as the computer does not automatically create images on the screen using some mathematical calculations. On the other hand, the artist uses his own painting technique to create a particular piece of work on the computer.[35]
Style is used in two senses: It can refer to the distinctive visual elements, techniques, and methods that typify an individual artist's work. It can also refer to the movement or school that an artist is associated with. This can stem from an actual group that the artist was consciously involved with or it can be a category in which art historians have placed the painter. The word 'style' in the latter sense has fallen out of favor in academic discussions about contemporary painting, though it continues to be used in popular contexts. Such movements or classifications include the following:
Modernism describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Modernism was a revolt against the conservative values of realism.[36][37]^ The term encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization, and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social, and political conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world. A salient characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness. This often led to experiments with form, and work that draws attention to the processes and materials used (and to the further tendency of abstraction).[38]
The first example of modernism in painting was impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors ( en plein air ). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon.
Abstract painting uses a visual language of form, colour and line to create a composition that may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world.[39][40]^ Abstract expressionism was an American post-World War II art movement that combined the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools—such as Futurism, Bauhaus and Cubism, and the image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, nihilistic.[41]
Digital painting
Painting styles
Western
Modernism
Impressionism
Abstract styles
Wu School Contemporary Japanese
Yamato-e Rimpa school Emakimono Kanō school Shijō school Superflat Korean
Arabic miniature Mughal miniature Ottoman miniature Persian miniature
Oriya school Bengal school Kangra Madhubani Mysore Rajput Mughal Samikshavad Tanjore Warli Kerala mural painting
Tingatinga
Abstract Expressionism American Figurative Expressionism Bay Area Figurative Movement Lyrical Abstraction New York Figurative Expressionism
Abstract expressionism American Figurative Expressionism Abstract Imagists Bay Area Figurative Movement Color field Computer art Conceptual art
Arte Povera Ascii Art Bad Painting Body art Artist's book Feminist art Installation art Land Art Lowbrow (art movement) Photorealism Postminimalism
Appropriation art Culture jamming Demoscene Electronic art Figuration Libre Graffiti Art Live art Mail art
Bio art Cyberarts Cynical Realism Digital Art Information art Internet art Massurrealism Maximalism New media art Software art
Digital Painting Hyperrealism Classical Realism Relational art Street art Stuckism Superflat Pseudorealism Videogame art Superstroke
Islamic
Indian
African
Contemporary art
1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
Francisco de Zurbarán, Still Life with Pottery Jars (Spanish: Bodegón de recipientes ) (1636), oil on canvas, 46 x 84 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid
New York School
Fluxus Happenings Hard-edge painting Lyrical Abstraction Minimalism Neo-figurative Neo-Dada New York School Nouveau Réalisme Op Art Performance art Pop Art Postminimalism Washington Color School Kinetic art
Process Art Video art Funk art Pattern and Decoration
Postmodern art Neo- conceptual art Neo- expressionism Neo-pop Sound art Transgressive art Video installation Institutional Critique NeoGeo
New European Painting Young British Artists
VJ art Virtual art Indigenous Art
Allegory is a figurative mode of representation conveying meaning other than the literal. Allegory communicates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions, or symbolic representation. Allegory is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be expressed in language: it may be addressed to the eye and is often found in realistic painting. An example of a simple visual allegory is the image of the grim reaper. Viewers understand that the image of the grim reaper is a symbolic representation of death.
In Spanish art, a bodegón is a still life painting depicting pantry items, such as victuals, game, and drink, often arranged on a simple stone slab, and also a painting with one or more figures, but significant still life elements, typically set in a kitchen or tavern. Starting in the Baroque period, such paintings became popular in Spain in the second quarter of the 17th century. The tradition of still life painting appears to have started and was far more popular in the contemporary Low Countries, today Belgium and Netherlands (then Flemish and Dutch artists), than it ever was in southern Europe. Northern still lifes had many subgenres: the breakfast piece was augmented by the trompe-l'œil , the flower bouquet , and the vanitas. In Spain, there were much fewer patrons for this sort of thing, but a type of breakfast piece did become popular, featuring a few objects of food and tableware laid on a table.
A figure painting is a work of art in any of the painting media with the primary subject being the human figure, whether clothed or nude. Figure painting may also refer to the activity of creating such a work. The human figure has been one of the contrast subjects of art since the first Stone Age cave paintings, and has been reinterpreted in various styles throughout history.[48]^ Some artists well known for figure painting are Peter Paul Rubens, Edgar Degas, and Édouard Manet.
Types of painting
Allegory
Bodegón
Figure painting
Illustration painting
20th-century Western painting Cobweb painting Drawing Graphic arts Index of painting-related articles List of most expensive paintings Outline of painting Painting outsourcing in China Visual arts Image
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- Piet Mondrian, Neo-Plasticism: Its Realization in Music and in Future Theater , 1922
- "Wassily Kandinsky – Quotes" (http://www.wassilykandinsky.net/quotes.php). www.wassilykandinsky.net. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
- , François Le Targat, Kandinsky , Twentieth Century masters series, Random House Incorporated, 1987, p. 7, ISBN 0847808106
- Susan B. Hirschfeld, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Hilla von Rebay Foundation, Watercolours by Kandinsky at the Guggenheim Museum: a selection from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and the Hilla von Rebay Foundation , 1991
- Fiedler, Jeannine (2013). Bauhaus. Germany: h.f.ullmann publishing GmbH. p. 262. ISBN 978-3-8480-0275-
See also
Notes
- Intersections with art and music, Rothko and Pollock (http://www.interlude.hk/front/intersections-art-music-rot hko-pollock/)
- "Plato's Aesthetics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171001041449/http://www.rowan.edu/open/philosop/clo wney/Aesthetics/philos_artists_onart/plato.htm). www.rowan.edu. Archived from the original (http://www.rowa n.edu/open/philosop/clowney/aesthetics/philos_artists_onart/plato.htm) on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
- Rollason, C., & Mittapalli, R. (2002). Modern criticism. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. p.
- ISBN 81-269-0187-X
- Craig, Edward. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Genealogy to Iqbal (https://books.google.com/book s?id=5m5z_ca-qDkC&pg=PA276). Routledge. 1998. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-415-18709-1.
- Wallace, William (1911). "Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop% C3%A6dia_Britannica/Hegel,_Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich). In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 200–207, see page 207. "Painting and music are the specially romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music comes poetry, where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate to the spirit"
- Franciscono, Marcel, Paul Klee: His Work and Thought , part 6 'The Bauhaus and Düsseldorf', chap. 'Klee's theory courses', p. 246 and under 'notes to pp. 245–54' p. 365
- Barasch, Moshe (2000) Theories of art – from impressionism to Kandinsky (https://books.google.com/books? id=R_2wIujisH4C) , part IV 'Abstract art', chap. 'Color' pp. 332–
- Jones, Howard (October 2014). "The Varieties of Aesthetic Experience". Journal for Spiritual & Consciousness Studies. 37 (4): 541–252.
- Encyclopedia Encarta (https://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563353/abstract_art.html) Archived (htt ps://web.archive.org/web/20080704155609/http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563353/Abstract_A rt.html) 4 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- "Review by art historian David Cohen" (http://www.artnet.com/Magazine/index/cohen/cohen8-16-99.asp). Artnet.com. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
- Bell, Julian (2007). Mirror of the World: A New History of Art. Thames and Hudson. p. 496. ISBN 978-0-500- 23837-0.
- Mayer, Ralph, The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques , Third Edition, New York: Viking, 1970, p.
- Mayer, Ralph. The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques. Viking Adult; 5th revised and updated edition, 1991. ISBN 0-670-83701-
- Cohn, Marjorie B., Wash and Gouache , Fogg Museum, 1977.
- Mayer, Ralph, The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques , Third Edition, New York: Viking, 1970, p.
- McNally, Rika Smith, "Enamel", Oxford Art Online
- Mayer, Ralph, The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques , Third Edition, New York: Viking, 1970, p.
- "What is digital painting?" (http://www.turningpointarts.com/what-is-digital-painting/). Turning Point Arts. 1 November 2008. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
- Barth, John (1979) The Literature of Replenishment , later republished in The Friday Book'(1984)'.
- Graff, Gerald (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction , TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–37; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.
- Gardner, Helen, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, and Diane Kirkpatrick. Gardner's Art Through the Ages (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991). ISBN 0-15-503770-6. p. 953.
- Arnheim, Rudolph, 1969, Visual Thinking
- Key, Joan (September 2009). "Future Use: Abstract Painting". Third Text. 23 (5): 557–63. doi:10.1080/09528820903184666 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09528820903184666). S2CID 144061791 (htt ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144061791).
- Shapiro, David/Cecile (2000): Abstract Expressionism. The politics of apolitical painting. p. 189-90 In: Frascina, Francis (2000): Pollock and After. The critical debate. 2nd ed. London: Routledge
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