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BIO 210 FInal Exam REvIEw
Define solvent. - ANS =The substance in a mixture that is in higher concentration - there is only ever one, usually water Define osmotic pressure. - ANS =The tendency of water to move into the cell via osmosis Define hydrostatic pressure. - ANS =The pressure a fluid exerts on its container Define filtration. - ANS =Substances move from an area of high hydrostatic pressure to an area of low hydrostatic pressure, does not require the breakdown of ATP Define active transport. - ANS =Transport process that requires the breakdown of ATP in order to utilize the released energy to move substances in or out of the cell. Net movement is often from low concentration to high (against concentration gradient). Define exocytosis. - ANS =Active transport process that involves the transport of substances outside the cell - secretory vesicles carrying substances fuse with the plasma membrane and rupture, releasing the substances to the outside of the cell. Define endocytosis. - ANS =Active transport process that involves the transport of substances inside the cell Define anatomy. - ANS =The study of structure. Define physiology. - ANS =The study of function.
Define homeostasis. - ANS =The body's ability to maintain a constant internal environment. Define metabolism. - ANS =The sum of all of the chemical reactions that occur within body cells, including catabolism (the breaking down of larger, more complex substances into smaller, simpler building blocks) and anabolism (the building of larger, more complex substances from smaller, simpler building blocks). Define stimuli. - ANS =Changes. List the structural levels of organization from simplest to most complex. Explain each level. - ANS =1. Atom - the basic unit of a chemical element
- Molecule - 2 or more atoms chemically bonded together
- Cell - the smallest living component of a living being
- Tissue - a group of cells that performs a specific function
- Organ - a group of different tissues that performs a specific function
- Organ System - a group of different organs that performs a specific function
- Organism - a group of different organ systems that work together to maintain life Differentiate between negative feedback and positive feedback. - ANS =Negative feedback: original stimulus and response are opposites Positive feedback: original stimulus and response are the same Differentiate between visceral and parietal membranes. Name the fluid found between these membranes. - ANS =Visceral membranes are located on the surface of the organs. Parietal membranes line the cavity in which the organ is located. Serous fluid
Differentiate between inorganic and organic molecules. - ANS =Organic compounds: contain carbon, made by living things, covalently bonded Inorganic compounds: usually do not contain carbon (a few exceptions - carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide) Name the most important inorganic molecule and explain its importance. - ANS =Water
- High heat capacity (absorbs/releases large amounts of heat before changing in temperature)
- High heat of vaporization (requires large amounts of heat to be absorbed for hydrogen bonds to break in order to vaporize)
- Universal solvent (almost anything will dissolve into water with the exception of lipids)
- Reactivity
- Cushioning
- Forms hydration layers Differentiate between acids, bases, and salts. - ANS =Acids: high concentration of H+, low concentration of OH-, low pH Bases: low concentration of H+, high concentration of OH-, high pH Salts: release ions other than H+ and OH- when dissociating All are inorganic compounds, ionic compounds, and electrolytes. Describe the change in pH if hydrogen ions are added to a solution. - ANS =pH goes down if hydrogen ions are added Describe the change in pH if hydrogen ions are removed from a solution. - ANS =pH goes up if hydrogen ions are removed
Define buffer. - ANS =A substance that is added to a solution in order to counteract an acid or base and maintain a stable pH List and give general function(s) of the major organic molecules found in the human body. Name the building block of each (for lipid: name the building blocks of triglycerides). - ANS =1. Carbohydrates - monosaccharide (simple sugar)
- Lipids - 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
- Proteins - amino acids
- Nucleic acids - nucleotides (sugar molecule + phosphate + nitrogenous base) Name the high-energy molecule that cells utilize. Describe how energy is released from this molecule. - ANS =Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) The third phosphate group is broken off, forming adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and converting the stored energy from that bond into kinetic energy. Define enzyme. - ANS =A globular protein that acts as a biological catalyst (increases the rates of chemical reactions within the body) Define substrate. - ANS =The substance that an enzyme acts on Differentiate between RNA and DNA. Name the monosaccharide found in RNA and name the monosaccharide found in DNA. List the nitrogenous bases found in RNA and in DNA. - ANS =RNA: ribonucleic acid - functions in protein synthesis, monosaccharide is ribose, nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid - hereditary material of cells, monosaccharide is deoxyribose, nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine Define cell. - ANS =The smallest unit of life
Define tight junction. - ANS =Impermeable cell junction where cells are held tightly together. Explain what it means if a substance moves down its concentration gradient. - ANS =Substances move down their concentration gradients when they move from high concentration to low. This does not require energy. Explain what it means if a substance moves up its concentration gradient. - ANS =Substances move up their concentration gradients when they move from low concentration to high. This requires energy (i.e. breakdown of ATP). Differentiate between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions. - ANS =Isotonic: equal solute concentration, equal osmotic pressure, no net movement of water Hypertonic: higher solute concentration and higher osmotic pressure than inside the cell, net movement of water out of the cell Hypotonic: lower solute concentration and lower osmotic pressure than inside the cell, net movement of water into the cell Describe net flow of water when a cell is placed in an isotonic solution. How does the cell change? - ANS =No net movement, cell stays the same Describe net flow of water when a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution. How does the cell change? - ANS =Net movement of water into the cell, cell swells Describe net flow of water when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution. How does the cell change? - ANS =Net movement out of the cell, cell shrinks
Differentiate between extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF). Identify where there is a higher concentration of Na+. Identify where there is a higher concentration of K+. - ANS =Extracellular fluid (ECF): outside the cell Intracellular fluid (ICF): inside the cell There is a higher concentration of Na+ outside the cell. There is a higher concentration of K+ inside the cell. Name the only type of intracellular fluid (ICF). - ANS =Cytosol Describe the function of the Golgi apparatus. - ANS =Modifies proteins and packages them into secretory vesicles for transport outside the cell via exocytosis Describe the function of lysosomes. - ANS =Contains digestive enzyme powerful enough to break down tissue Describe the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. - ANS =Modifies, synthesizes, and transports lipids Describe the function of mitochondria. - ANS ="Powerhouse" of the cell, where most of the cellular ATP is produced Describe the function of the nucleus. - ANS =Control center of the cell Describe the function of ribosomes. - ANS =Function in protein synthesis List, in order, the stages of the cell cycle. - ANS =1. Interphase (made up of G1 Phase, S Phase, and G2 Phase)
- Prophase
Translation: occurs in the cytosol on ribsomes, tRNA molecules arrive at the ribosome and complement codons. Peptide bonds form between tRNA's amino acids and tRNA detaches, leaving its amino acids behind as part of the forming protein. Describe the roles DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and ribosomes play in protein synthesis. - ANS =DNA: contains the codes for proteins mRNA: relays the codes for proteins from DNA to tRNA tRNA: ferries amino acids to ribosomes where they decode mRNA's info for amino acid sequence Define tissue. - ANS =A group of cells working together to perform a specific function Describe the general structure and function of the 4 major tissue types. - ANS =1. Epithelial Tissue - cells are closely packed together to form a layer of cells, one surface of this layer is exposed to the environment (apical surface) and the deeper portion is attached to a layer of connective tissue (basal surface), made up of squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube- shaped), or columnar (taller than wide) cells, lines, covers, protects, and makes up glands
- Connective Tissue - cells are not closely packed together, in between living cells is a nonliving extracellular matrix, provides support, framework, and shape
- Muscle Tissue - parallel layers, striated, multinucleated (skeletal), branched, striated (cardiac), parallel layers, nonstriated (smooth), to provide movement
- Nervous Tissue - made up of neurons and network of support cells, to carry out fast communication and control.
Give the location of simple squamous epithelial tissue. - ANS =Capillary walls, kidney glomeruli, and alveoli in the lungs Give the location of pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue. - ANS =Nonciliated located in sperm carrying ducts (vas deferens), ciliated located in the linings of the trachea and upper respiratory tract Give the location of transitional epithelial tissue. - ANS =Urinary bladder List epithelial tissues that contain goblet cells. Name the secretion released from goblet cells. - ANS =Simple columnar epithelial tissue, pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue Mucus Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands. Provide examples of each. - ANS =Endocrine: secrete product into the bloodstream (i.e. pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, etc.) Exocrine: secrete product onto a surface (i.e. sudoriferous/sweat glands, sebaceous glands, etc.) Give the location of dense irregular connective tissue. - ANS =Dermis of the skin Give the location of adipose connective tissue. - ANS =Hypodermis, breasts Give the location of hyaline cartilage. - ANS =Embryonic skeleton, costal cartilages of ribs, nose, trachea Give the location of dense regular connective tissue. - ANS =Tendons, ligaments
Name the 2 skin layers. - ANS =1. Epidermis
- Dermis List the cell layers of the epidermis in order from most superficial to deepest. Name the cell layer that is only found in thick skin. Identify where thick skin is located. - ANS =1. Stratum corneum
- Stratum lucidum (only found in thick skin - palms, soles of feet)
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum basale Differentiate between sebaceous and sudoriferous glands. Name the secretion released from each. - ANS =Sebaceous glands: multicellular, exocrine, holocrine, secrete sebum, an oily substance that makes the skin more moist and pliable Sudoriferous glands: 2 different types (apocrine, eccrine), multicellular, exocrine, merocrine, secrete sweat Differentiate between keratinocytes and melanocytes. Explain differences in human skin color. - ANS =Keratinocytes: located in epidermis, produce keratin (very tough protein) Melanocytes: located in stratum basale of the epidermis, produce melanin (blackish brown pigment Skin color is determined by the amount of melanin produced by melanocytes (not by the number of melanocytes, as that is typically the same for everyone). The more melanin, the darker the skin and vice versa. Describe the function(s) of Meissner's corpuscle. - ANS =Detects light pressure
Describe the function(s) of Pacinian corpuscle. - ANS =Detects deep pressure Describe the function(s) of arrector pili muscle. - ANS =Contracts when body temperature decreases in order to generate heat Name the type of tissue found in the hypodermis. - ANS =Adipose connective tissue Describe functions of the integumentary system. - ANS =1. Protective outer covering - prevents harmful things from entering the body and prevents vital organs from exiting the body.
- Body temperature regulation - sweat reduces body heat through vaporization, adipose tissue in hypodermis insulates, arterioles contract and relax to maintain or reduce heat respectively, and arrector pili muscles contract to produce heat.
- Cutaneous sensation - thermoreceptors detect temperature changes and mechanoreceptors detect pressure changes.
- Metabolic functions - converts sunlight to the precursor of vitamin D
- Blood reservoir - veins in the dermis store blood
- Excretion - uric acid and urea are waste products that are excreted through sweat Describe functions of the skeletal system. - ANS =1. Support: The internal skeleton supports the body.
- Protection: Several vital organs are protected by bone (brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, kidneys).
- Anchorage: Skeletal (voluntary) muscles are attached to bones by tendons. One end of the muscle is attached to an immovable bone (called the origin), the other end is attached to a movable bone (called the insertion). When a skeletal muscle contracts, it pulls the insertion toward the origin.
- Mineral storage: Calcium phosphate (an inorganic salt that makes the extracellular matrix of bone hard) is stored in bone.
- Blood cell formation: Erythrocytes and leukocytes are produced by bone through a process called hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis.
- Triglyceride storage: Bones store triglycerides (fat).
the outside of the ossification center gain blood vessels and differentiate into periosteum where they continue to carry out bone deposit, resulting in superficial layers of compact bone. Flat bones of the skull, clavicles, and mandible are formed by intramembraneous ossification. Endochondral ossification: The perichondrium of the hyaline cartilage structure differentiates into the periosteum. Osteoblasts in the periosteum begin to lay down osteoid. As the osteoid becomes calcified, bone forms on the outside of the hyaline cartilage structure, creating the bone collar. The primary ossification center forms as a cluster of cells within the diaphysis. Calcium salts are added to the cartilaginous matrix, and the matrix becomes calcified and hard. In the hard, calcified matrix, the chondrocytes enlarge and die, leaving behind the lacunae. The result is a hard, calcified matrix with holes in it. The periosteal bud enters the primary ossification center, bringing with it osteoblasts, osteoclasts, lymphatics, red bone marrow elements, etc. The osteoblasts begin to lay down osteoid on the hard, calcified matrix with holes in it, producing spongy bone. Osteoclasts from the pe List the organic components of bone. Name the inorganic component of bone. Which is responsible for the hardness of bone? - ANS =Organic: osteoid (produced by osteoblasts), composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen fibers Inorganic: calcium salt - makes bone hard Define osteocyte. - ANS =Mature bone cell Define osteoblast. - ANS =Immature bone cell that functions in the buildup of the bony matrix by producing the osteoid portion of the bony matrix Define osteoclast. - ANS =Immature bone cell that functions in the breakdown of the bony matrix Explain why blood calcium ion level must be maintained. Describe the roles osteoclasts and osteoblasts play in blood calcium homeostasis. - ANS =All 3 types of muscle (skeletal,
smooth and cardiac) need calcium ions to contract, neurons require calcium ions to communicate with other neurons, and calcium ions must be present for blood to clot. Calcium ions are released into the bloodstream when osteoclasts break down the bony matrix, resulting in an increase in blood calcium ion level. Calcium ions are removed from the bloodstream when osteoblasts build up the bony matrix, resulting in a decrease in blood calcium ion level. These two processes work together to maintain blood calcium ion level. Define joint (articulation). - ANS =Where 2 or more bones meet Differentiate between fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints. - ANS =Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial are structural classifications of joints (based on what kind of tissue is found between the bones). Fibrous: fibrous connective tissue Cartilaginous: articular cartilage Synovial: articular cartilage, among other structures Differentiate between synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, and diarthrotic joints. - ANS =Synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, and diarthrotic are functional classifications of joints (based on the degree of movement that takes place at the joint).
- Synarthrosis - immovable
- Amphiarthrosis - slightly movable
- Diarthrosis - freely movable Identify examples of each of these types of diarthrotic joints: ball-and-socket, pivot, hinge, and gliding. - ANS =Ball-and-socket: shoulder joints and hip joints Pivot: radioulnar joint, neck joint between C1 and C2 vertebrae
Name the only neurotransmitter that functions in skeletal muscle contraction. - ANS =Acetylcholine (ACh) Define sarcomere. Describe the structure of a sarcomere, including A band, I band, H zone, Z disc, thick myofilament, and thin myofilament. - ANS =A segment of a myofibril. Sarcomeres are made up of alternating thick and thin myofilaments. The thick myofilaments can be found in the middle of the sarcomere, whereas the thin myofilaments are found on either side. On either end of the sarcomere are Z discs. The H zone is in the middle where only thick myofilaments are found. The I band is between two sarcomeres where only thin myofilaments are found. The A band is made up of both thin and thick myofilaments. Name the protein found in the thick myofilaments. Name the main protein found in the thin myofilaments. - ANS =Thick myofilaments: myosin Thin myofilaments: actin Describe the physical change that occurs to cause the sarcomere to shorten (sliding filament theory). In other words, describe the action of the myofilaments that causes the sarcomere to shorten. - ANS =Thick myofilaments pull thin myofilaments to the center of the sarcomere, therefore shortening the sarcomere. Define myoglobin. - ANS =Pigment located within skeletal muscle fiber that binds with and stores oxygen. The red pigment is produced when myoglobin binds with oxygen. Define motor end plate. - ANS =Trough-like portion of a skeletal muscle cell's sarcolemma that forms part of the neuromuscular junction, contains receptors for acetylcholine and ligand-gated ion channels Define neuromuscular junction. - ANS =Region where a motor neuron comes into close contact with a skeletal muscle fiber, where action potential is transmitted from motor neuron to skeletal muscle fiber
Define motor unit. - ANS =A motor neuron plus all the skeletal muscle fibers it stimulates. Each motor unit has only one motor neuron but may contain only a few skeletal muscle fibers (small motor unit - functions in fine muscle movements) or many skeletal muscle fibers (large motor unit - functions in gross muscle movements). Define synaptic cleft. - ANS =The space between the synaptic end bulb of the motor neuron and the motor end plate of the skeletal muscle fiber Describe, in general, transmission of an impulse (action potential) from a motor neuron to a skeletal muscle fiber. - ANS =The action potential propagates down the axon of the presynaptic neuron to the axon terminal and synaptic end bulb. At the synaptic end bulb, Ca2+ voltage-gated ion channels open, and the influx of Ca2+ forces vesicles carrying the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) to migrate down, fuse with the plasma membrane, and release ACh via exocytosis. ACh then binds to receptors on the motor end plate of the skeletal muscle fiber, opening ligand-gated ion channels. After these gated ion channels open, ions flow either into or out of the motor end plate, causing the motor end plate to reach threshold (-55 mV). If the motor end plate reaches threshold, an action potential is generated. After the action potential is created at the motor end plate, it propagates down the sarcolemma, then down the T-tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum where Ca2+ voltage-gated ion channels are opened. Ca2+ diffuses out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and binds to troponin on thin myofilaments, removing the blocking effect of tropomyosin. Myosin heads on thick myofilaments can now form cross-bridges with myosin binding sites on thin myofilaments as long as the myosin heads have been activated by the energy released by the breakdown of ATP. Identify the location of voltage-gated and ligand-gated ion channels. Identify the ions that diffuse through each channel. Describe the concentrations of these ions prior to opening of the channels (channels are closed). Describe flow of ions when the channels open. - ANS =Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ ion channels are located in axon of the motor neuron, and in the T-tubules of the skeletal muscle fiber. Na+ is in higher concentration outside of the cell, so these ions diffuse into the cell when gated ion channels open. K+ is in higher concentration inside the cell, so these ions diffuse out of the cell when gated ion channels open. Voltage-gated Ca2+ ion channels are located in the synaptic end bulb of the motor neuron and in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the skeletal muscle fiber. Ca2+ is in higher concentration outside the cell, so these ions diffuse into the cell when gated ion channels open.
