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BIO172 Study Guide/Questions with Accurate
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Sexual reproduction Creation of offspring by fusion of male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote Asexual Reproduction Creation of offspring without combining genes from two individuals Fission Separation of the parent into 2 or more individuals of same size Asexual Reprod, Invertebrates Budding New individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones Asexually Fragmentation Breaking of body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults Asexually Parthenogenesis Development of a new individual from unfertilized egg One genetic parents so Asexual Plants, Invertebrates, Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles Aspidoscelis Whiptail lizards arose from hybridization Parthenogenesis occurs in 15 of the species
Sex a Common Trait Sexual lineages have half as many reproducers as asexual linages (all female) Sexual Reproduction Pros Increased likelihood of offspring surviving Increase in rate of adaptation Shuffling of genes and elimination of harmful genes from a population Ovulation Release of mature eggs at midpoint of female cycle Gonads Organs that produce gametes Accessory organs Transfer and repection of sperm Spermatheca Organ in which sperm is stored after mating Cloaca Common opening for digestive, excretory, and reproductive system Nonmammalian veterbrates Follicles In ovaries and contain partial developed egg Oocyte Partially developed egg in follicles Oogenesis
Composed of sperm plus secretion from three sets pf accessory glands Seminal Vesicles Contribute about 60% of total volume of semen Prostate Gland Secretes its products directly into urethra through small ducts Bulbourethral Gland Secrete clear fluid before ejaculation that neutralizes acidity in urethra Human Penis Composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue Spermatogenesis Development of sperm Continuous and Prolific Millions produced per day, 7 weeks to develop Oogenesis Process results in ovulation Monthly Release of a mature egg FSH Follicle Stimulating Hormone Promote activity of Sertoli cells, Nourish sperm LH Luteinizing Hormone Stimulate LEYDIG Cells to secrete testosterone Promotes spermatogenesis
Two cycles of female reproduction Changes in ovaries define ovarian cycle Changes in uterus define menstrual cycle If Embryo Not Implant in Endometrium (B4 Ovulation, endometrium thickens to prepare embryo implantation/develop) Endometrium Shed in Process of Menstruation GnRH Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Then FSH and LH stimulate follicle growth Follicle growth and estradiol lead to ovulation/release of egg Corpus luteum Secretes estradiol and progesterone that helps to maintain pregnancy Female Cycle Image hCG Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Hormone Prevents Menstruation Embryo Nutrition First 2-4 weeks obtains from endometrium Later Trophoblast Mingles with endometrium and forms placenta Human Control Birth Positive Feedback
Secretion in mammalian female reproductive tract alter sperm motility and structure Must Occur before sperm are able to Fertilize an Egg Slow Block To Polyspermy in Mammal Sperm Binds a Receptor in Zona Pellucida Cleavage Rapid Cell Division Without Growth Blastomeres Cleavage Splits Cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells Blastula Ball of cells with fluid filled cavity called Blastocoel Yolk Influences the pattern of cleavage Vegetal Pole has More Yolk Animal Pole has Less Yolk Diff in Yolk Distribution Results in Animal And Vegetal Hemispheres that differ in appearance Holoblastic Cleavage Complete Division of Egg In Species of Eggs have little yolk (Frogs/Sea Urchins) Meroblastic Cleavage Incomplete division of egg In Species with Yolk Rich (Reptiles/Birds)
Morphogenesis Process where cells occupy appropriate location Involve Gastrulation/Organogenesis Gastrulation Movement of cells from blastula surface to interior of embryo Organogenesis Formation of Organs Germ Layers Three Layers Produced by gastrulation Ectoderm Endoderm Mesoderm Ectoderm Outerlayer Endoderm Lines Digestive Tract Mesoderm Fills space between the endoderm and ectoderm Blastocyst Human equivalent of blastula Trophoblast
The Resulting specialization in structure and function Fatemaps Used to describe cell differentiation and show what structures arise from each region Gravity Establishes anterior-posterior axis pH differences Establish dorsal-ventral axis Orientation of Egg and Sperm Nuclei In mammals, before fusion, may help establish embryonic axes Pattern Formation Development of spatial organization or tissues and organs Positional Information Molecular cues that control pattern formation, Tells cell where it is in body inductive signaling Induce changes in adjacent cells and act as organizers of embryonic development Limb Buds Vertebrate limbs begin as tissue called limp buds Sonic Hedgehog Released by ZPA (Zone of Polarizing Activity) Signals from AER (Apical Ectodermal Ridge) and provides positional information to cells along the limb Ciliary Function
essential for proper specification of cell fate in the human embryo Monocilia (nonmotile cilia) Antennae for chemical signals and roles in normal kidney development Motile cilia Move signals and play roles in left-right specification Kartageners Syndrome Situs Inversus Results from Genetic Defect in Motile Cilia Organs are reversed Nerve Cells Neurons Receive Signals at dendrites and pass along axon for rapid communication Afferent Nerves Sensory Nerves Carry signals to brain/ central nervous system Efferent Nerves Motor Nerves Carry signals out from central nervous system Resting Membrane Potential
- 70 mV At rest nerce has - charge inside
Response acting through sensory nerve and motor nerve in CNS Autonomic Nervous System Involuntary Body Functions Under Peripheral Nervous System Has Sympathetic Division (Rest and Digest) and Parasympathetic Division (Fight or Flight) Sensory Pathway 4 Functions in Common Reception Transduction Transmission Perception 1 Sensory Receptors interact directly with stimuli, both inside and outside the body Interoceptors Responds to internal environment blood O2, CO2, pH Arterial and venous pressure Limb position Body temperature 2 Sensory Transduction Conversion of stimulus energy into a change in membrane potential of a sensory receptor This change is called receptor potential 3 Transmission of Action Potentials
After energy has been transduced into a receptor potential, some sensory cells generate this to the CNS 4 Perceptions Representations of stimuli constructed in the brain Can be affected by both amplification of and adaptation to Mechanoreceptors detects Settling particles or moving fluid Hair Cells Receptors of equilibrium hearing, and electroreceptive organs Receptors with mechanically gated ion channels that open in response to displacement The channels are pulled open by movement of projections form cell ( IN Image) Vertebrate Ear Function Vibrations from sound transmitted from Tympanic Membrane Then to three middle bones to cochlea' Malleus/Incus/Stapes/Cochlea Volume Detected by # of hair cells stimulated Pitch Detected by position of the stimulated cells along the cochlea Movement and Position / Gravity (In Ear) Detected with statolith Lateral Line System
- Water soluble
- High Concentration Electroreception Detect electrical field produced by muscle activity of living organisms Among aquatic chordates and is ancestral trait lost in terrestrial species Platypus has in bill Photoreceptors in Arthropods Compound Eyes have many photoreceptors with own protective cornea and focusing lens Each contributes a "pixel" to the image Oceli Individual arthropods can have diverse sets of visual sensors. Gives Single light readings and used in detect movement Compound Eyes Good for motion tracking Bad for conveying high resolution image Need to be 1 meter to be as equal to human eye Vertebrate Eye Single lens eyes focus light on photoreceptors in retina Rhodopsins Pigments that change configuration in response to light and trigger a reaction that stimulates nerves Rod Photoreceptors
Sensitive to low light and cone photoreceptors Lateral Inhibition Resulted by the Interaction among neurons of retina Increases contrast in the image The 4 Questions For Behavior Niko Tinbergen
- What stimulus elicits behavior, and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response
- How does the animals experience during growth and development influence the response mechanisms
- How does the behavior aid survival and reproduction
- What is the behaviors evolutionary history Fixed Action Pattern Sequence of unlearned innate behaviors that is unchangeable Triggered by sign stimulus/ external cue Signal Behavior that causes a change in another animals behavior Communication Transmission and reception of signals Animals Communicate by visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory Tactile Communication Crucial to copulation By touching Acoustic Communication
- Cost to the altruist (C)
- Coefficient of relatedness (r) Kin Selection Natural Selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing reproduction of relatives Density
of individuals per unit area or volume
Dispersion Spacing pattern among individuals Clumped Uniform Random Dispersion Cause Environmental and social factors influence the spacing In random, position of each individual is independent of other individuals Demography Study of vital statistics of a population and how they change over time Life table Age specific summary of the survival pattern of a population Cohort Group of individuals of the same age Survivorship curves
Simple Population Models Change in population size = Births + Immigrant enters - deaths - Emigrants leaving Population Growth Rate ΔN/Δt = B-D Also can be ΔN/Δt = bN-mN ΔN is change in population size Δt is time interval B is # of Births D is # of Deaths Total Births and Deaths Expressed in terms of average # of births and deaths per individual during a specific time B=bN D=mN b is annual per capita birth rate m is per individual death rate N is population size Per Individual Rate of Increase r=b-m Zero Population Growth
