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Module 1/ Pathophysiology - BIOD331 - Module 2
There are six levels of organization in the body - Define microbiology - - correct ans- -The study of microorganisms Examples of daily microbe usage - - correct ans- -vitamins, antibiotics, alcohol, laundry enzymes Define a cell - - correct ans- -Basic unit of life What are the characteristics of life? - - correct ans- -organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, homeostasis, reproduction How are cells similar? - - correct ans- -all built with same macromolecules and use central dogma of biology, all descend from previous cells How are cells different? - - correct ans- -Shapes, sizes, functions, organelles What determines a cell's function? - - correct ans- -gene expression Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells - - correct ans- -no nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, small and simple, most abundant, include bacteria and archaea, hold DNA in plasmids Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells - - correct ans- -large and complex, DNA in nucleus, single and multicellular, include Plant, Animal, Fungal, and Protista, have specialized organelles
Define a prokaryotic cell - - correct ans- -unicellular, highly diverse type of cells with features that can cause virulence What is a prokaryotic cell wall made of? - - correct ans- -peptidoglycan What is a Glycocalyx? - - correct ans- -gel-like sugar-protein coat that protects prokaryotic cells from attack against a hosts immune system (provides prokaryotic virulence) What are the 4 prokaryotic cell shapes? - - correct ans- -cocci, bacilli, spirilla, vibrio What cells are known for their ability to survive very harsh environments? - - correct ans- - archaea What features do Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells have in common? - - correct ans- - macromolecules, plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes, unicellular Define Eukaryotic cell - - correct ans- -diverse and highly complex cells with nucleus and organelles Characteristics of Animalia - - correct ans- -eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, no regular shape, motility Characteristics of Plantae - - correct ans- -eukaryotic, multicellular, autotroph (photosynthesis), cell wall made of cellulose to prevent excess water intake and pectin, specialized organelles (plastids, central vacuole, chloroplasts) What are plastids? - - correct ans- -main site of photosynthesis and storage
Function of nuclear pores - - correct ans- -passage of molecules and RNA between nucleus and cytoplasm Function of nucleolus - - correct ans- -produces ribosomes Function of ribosomes - - correct ans- -assembly of RNA and proteins that carry out protein synthesis in the cytosol or rough ER Function of the ER - - correct ans- -where cell-membrane components and particles for cellular exocytosis are produced Function of the Rough ER - - correct ans- -ribosomes for translation (RNA to proteins) Function of Smooth ER - - correct ans- -cell membrane components produced, calcium storage, carb metabolism Function of the Golgi Complex - - correct ans- -series of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae that modify and package proteins, cell distribution center Function of Lysosomes - - correct ans- -intracellular digestion Characteristics of Mitochondria - - correct ans- -contain their own DNA and ribosomes, grow and reproduce independently from cells, have folded inner membrane called cristae that creates 2 spaces: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Define protein - - correct ans- -polypeptide made of polymers from 20 different amino acid monomers
Define amino acid - - correct ans- -An organic molecule containing a carboxyl group and an amino group; serves as the monomer of proteins. What is an R group in proteins? - - correct ans- -varied chemical group that gives each amino acid its characteristics and guides the function and structure of proteins How many essential amino acids are there? - - correct ans- -9 (must get through diet) What is the only macromolecule that does not form polymers? - - correct ans- -lipids Function of Steroids - - correct ans- -structural component of cell membranes and signaling molecules Function of triglycerides - - correct ans- -energy storage Function of phospholipids - - correct ans- -build plasma and cellular membrane Define chitin - - correct ans- -A structural polysaccharide found in many fungal cell walls There are six levels of organization in the body - what are they? - - correct ans- -1) chemical
- cellular
- tissue
- organ structure
- organ system
- organism The necessary life function that protects our internal environment from our external environment is provided by what system? - - correct ans- -The integumentary system
Epithelial cells perform what types of functions? - - correct ans- -Secretion and absorption What are the four basic tissue types? - - correct ans- -1) epithelial
- muscle
- connective
- nervous Toward or at the body surface is known as what direction? - - correct ans- -Superficial Away from the body surface is what direction? - - correct ans- -Deep Between a more medial and a more lateral structure is what direction? - - correct ans- - Intermediate Toward or at the midline of the body or on the inner side of is what direction? - - correct ans- - Medial Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure of the body is what direction? -
- correct ans- -Inferior Toward the head end or upper part of a structure (above) is what direction? - - correct ans- - Superior Toward or at the front of the body is what direction? - - correct ans- -Anterior/Ventral Is the knee proximal or distal to the pelvis? - - correct ans- -Distal
Is the elbow proximal or distal to the hand? - - correct ans- -Proximal Toward or at the back of the body is what direction? - - correct ans- -Posterior/Dorsal Closing of a joint is which action? - - correct ans- -Flexion Opening of a joint is which action? - - correct ans- -Extension In anatomical position are the hands in pronation or supination? - - correct ans- -Supination Why are the hands palm forward in anatomical position? - - correct ans- -In supination the forearm bones (the radius and ulna) are uncrossed. Define elevation - - correct ans- -upward movement of a structure Define depression in anatomy - - correct ans- -downward movement of a structure Define retraction - - correct ans- -the movement of a structure in the posterior direction Define protraction - - correct ans- -the movement of a structure in the anterior direction A person standing in anatomical position moves their right wrist laterally toward the radius - what is this action called? - - correct ans- -Radial deviation This body division includes the head, neck, and trunk. - - correct ans- -axial division
What is pleurisy? - - correct ans- -inflammation of the pleurae, which impairs their lubricating function and causes pain when breathing. It is caused by pneumonia and other diseases of the chest or abdomen. The abdominopelvic region is divided into what four quadrants? - - correct ans- -right upper, left upper, right lower, and left lower This region surrounds the naval. - - correct ans- -umbilical region This region houses the pelvis. - - correct ans- -illiac region This cavity houses the teeth and tongue. - - correct ans- -oral cavity This cavity houses the eyes. - - correct ans- -orbital cavity Joints are lined with what? - - correct ans- -synovial fluid This cavity contains the tiny ear bones, name them. - - correct ans- -middle ear: malleus, incus, and stapes Why do active metabolizing cells need to be relatively small? - - correct ans- -Active metabolizing cells need to be relatively small so that the metabolic processes can occur at a faster rate. As a cell gets bigger the ratio of surface area to volume decreases. The larger the surface area of a cell is relative to its volume, the faster metabolic processes can occur. What are three differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? - - correct ans- -1) Prokaryotic cells do not have a nuclear membrane whereas eukaryotic cells do
- prokaryotic cells are usually smaller than eukaryotic cells
- prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles that are found in eukaryotic cells. What is the function of the nucleus? - - correct ans- -The nucleus stores DNA and is the control center of the cell. What is the function of ribosomes? - - correct ans- -Ribosomes synthesize proteins. What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)? - - correct ans- -synthesizes lipids What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)? - - correct ans- -The rough ER takes the proteins from the ribosomes on its surface and modifies and transports them. What is the function of RNA? - - correct ans- -RNA transports the coded amino acid sequence to the ribosomes from the nucleus for protein synthesis. What is the function of endospores? - - correct ans- -An endospore is a dormant and very durable cell formed from bacteria. What is the function of the Golgi complex? - - correct ans- -The Golgi complex receives lipids and proteins from the ER, alters the structures of them, and then ships them to other parts in the cell. It also produces lysosomes. What is the function of a lysosome? - - correct ans- -A lysosome is made up of digestive enzymes that break down biomacromolecules. What is the function of mitochondria? - - correct ans- -The mitochondria converts energy from food into ATP.
Facilitated diffusion is used for a lipid-insoluble molecule and happens by carrier proteins binding temporarily to the molecule and releasing it to the other side. (lipid-insoluble (polar) molecules such as sugars and amino acids) active transport - - correct ans- -When molecules or ions are pumped from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This requires extra energy and carrier proteins because the molecules are going against the concentration gradient. endocytosis - - correct ans- -when a biomacromolecule outside the cell gets enclosed in the cell membrane and forms a vesicle inside the cell. phagocytosis - - correct ans- -endocytosis of extremely large things like other cells. Once enclosed, lysosomes fuse with and digest it. pinocytosis - - correct ans- -endocytosis of tiny droplets of fluids. The cell membrane pinches inward. receptor-mediated endocytosis - - correct ans- -information transfer from one cell to another by use of ligands (signaling molecules) that bind to receptor proteins. proteins - - correct ans- -In facilitated diffusion and active transport, carrier proteins are used to move lipid-insoluble molecules to the other side of the membrane. isotonic - - correct ans- -same concentration of solutes inside as outside the cell hypertonic - - correct ans- -higher concentration of solutes inside the cell than outside the cell blood cells will shrivel in the process of equalizing hypotonic - - correct ans- -lower concentration of solutes inside the cell that outside the cell
blood cells will swell in the process of equalizing cholesterol - - correct ans- -Cholesterol is a lipid that is very hydrophobic and has one polar hydroxyl group. It joins with phopholipids and mixes in with the tails to prevent solidification during low temperatures. It also stabilizes the phospholipd head with the hydroxyl group by restricting movement in higher temperatures. Describe the first tier of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. - - correct ans- -Physiological: biological needs for survival such as food, water, shelter Describe the second tier of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. - - correct ans- -Safety: protection from the elements, financial/physical security, law and order, freedom from fear Describe the third tier of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. - - correct ans- -Love and belonging: Involve interpersonal relationships: friendships, intimacy, trust, belonging to a group Describe the fourth tier of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. - - correct ans- -Esteem: self-respect, achievement, independence, status, prestige Describe the fifth tier of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. - - correct ans- -Self-Actualization: personal growth and fulfillment-a desire to become everything one is capable of becoming What are the first four needs known as in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs? - - correct ans- - Deficiency needs What is the last need known as in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? - - correct ans- -self-fulfillment or a growth need What is the first stage in Gessell's theory of physical development? - - correct ans- -Infancy: birth-2yrs. roll over, sit up, begin to walk
Neoplasms tend to have _______ ______ that cause excessive and uncontrolled proliferation that is unregulated by normal growth-regulating stimuli. - - correct ans- -Genetic abnormalities What is differentiation? - - correct ans- -Process by which cells become more specialized with each mitotic division What is apoptosis? - - correct ans- -Programmed cell death. Eliminates old, damaged, or unwanted cells What are proto-oncogenes? - - correct ans- -Cell growth. They encode proteins that signal for the cell to proliferate What do tumor suppressor genes do? - - correct ans- -Cell death. Encode proteins that inhibit cell growth and signal (when necessary) for apoptosis What is the G1 phase of the cell cycle? - - correct ans- -DNA synthesis stops while the cell enlarges and both RNA and protein synthesis begins What is the S phase of the cell cycle? - - correct ans- -DNA synthesis occurs, producing 2 separate sets of chromosomes one for each daughter cell What is the G2 phase of the cell cycle? - - correct ans- -DNA synthesis again stops while RNA/protein synthesis continues. The first 3 phases of the cell cycle are referred to as __________ - - correct ans- -Interphase What are cell cycle checkpoints? - - correct ans- -Means of molecular surveillance used to ensure the cell is ready to proceed to the next phase
What is the M phase of the cell cycle? - - correct ans- -Mitosis and cytoplasmic division. Give an example of a type of cell found in the body that continually cycles from one mitotic division to the next. - - correct ans- -Skin's squamous epithelium What is the rest state that some cells enter after the M phase called? - - correct ans- -G0 or resting phase Why would a cell enter the G0 phase? - - correct ans- -1. Nutrients are unavailable
- Growth factors are unavailable
- Highly specialized cells first leave the cell cycle What type of cells found in the body may permanently stay in G0? - - correct ans- -Neurons (highly specialized and terminally differentiated cells) What may prompt a cell to leave the G0 phase? - - correct ans- -Cell receives stimuli via:
- Growth factors
- Hormones
- Other signals that trigger growth Give an example of a cell type found in the body that remains in G0 phase until prompted. - - correct ans- -Blood loss or tissue injury Define cell proliferation - - correct ans- -Process of increasing cell numbers by mitotic cell division. In normal tissues, the number of new cells being produced is __________ to the number of cells dying or being shed. - - correct ans- -Equivalent
Undifferentiated _____ cells that can enter the cell cycle and produce large numbers of progenitor (parent) cells if needed - - correct ans- -Stem What is cell differentiation? - - correct ans- -Refers to the process by which cells become more specialized in both their structure and function The various cell types of the body all originate from where? - - correct ans- -The fertilized ovum As differentiation progresses, the process within each developing cell type must be _____ ______ - - correct ans- -Tightly regulated As cells become more and more specialized they lose the ability to develop the _______ and _____ characteristics of other cell types - - correct ans- -Structural; functional What is the benefit of specialized cells being unable to take on the structural and functional characteristics of other cell types? - - correct ans- -It ensures that the integrity and composition of developing organs is maintained and free from differing cell types What happens when specialized cells are unable to divide? - - correct ans- -They rely on parent cells of the same lineage that are still able to divide Stem cells, unlike progenitor cells, remain incompletely _______ and _______ until they are needed. - - correct ans- -Differentiated; dormant When a stem cell divides, what happens to its 2 daughter cells? - - correct ans- -One retains the stem cell characteristics while the other becomes a parent cell until it reaches a state of terminal differentiation What are 2 important properties of stem cells? - - correct ans- -1. Self renewal
- Potency What is self renewal as it pertains to stem cells? - - correct ans- -Stem cell can undergo many mitotic divisions while maintaining an undifferentiated state What is potency as it pertains to stem cells? - - correct ans- -The differentiation potential of steem cells Pluripotent stem cells can ____________ - - correct ans- -Potentially differentiate into any cell type Multipotent stem cells can ________ - - correct ans- -Differentiate into only a few types Unipotent stem cells are ________ - - correct ans- -Restricted to a single cell type but can maintain self-renewal What are the 2 classifications of stem cells? - - correct ans- -1. Embryonic
- Adult Why are embryonic stem cells important? - - correct ans- -They give rise to 3 main germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) which in turn develop into all the organ systems of the body What do adult stem cells do? - - correct ans- -Have a role in homeostasis, contributing to tissue regeneration and replacement of cells lost to apoptosis What does the Greek word onkos mean? - - correct ans- -Swelling What refers to a cancerous mass of cells? - - correct ans- -Tumor
