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A comprehensive overview of key concepts in biology, including nutrition, metabolism, and tissue types. it presents numerous questions and answers covering carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and cellular respiration. The detailed explanations make it a valuable resource for students studying biology at the university or high school level. the questions and answers are well-structured and cover a wide range of topics, making it useful for self-assessment and exam preparation.
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Nutrition - answer most ingested of this is used for metabolic fuel. some for cell structures and molecular synthesis. energy value measured in kilocalories Nutrient - answer substance in food for growth, maintenance, repair What are some major nutrients? - answer carbohydrates, lipids and proteins What nutrients are required in small amounts? - answer vitamins and minerals
What are the food groups? - answer fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, dairy What can convert many molecules into those needed? - answer the liver Are non-essential nutrients essential to life? - answer yes Carbohydrates - answer dietary sources comes from plants. starch in grains and vegetables. sugars in fruits, sugarcane, sugar beets, honey, and milk. Insoluble fiber in cellulose in vegetables. Soluble fiber in pectin in apples and citrus fruits, it reduces blood cholesterol levels. small amount in milk sugar Carbohydrates use in the body - answer Glucose- fuel used by cells to make ATP. Excess glucose converted to glycogen or fat stored. Fructose and galactose converted to glucose by liver before circulation Carbohydrates Dietary requirements - answer a minimum of 100 g/day to maintain adequate blood glucose levels. recommended minimum of 130g/day. recommended intake is 45-65% of total calorie intake. if less than 50 g/day proteins and fats are used for energy
Proteins Use in the Body - answer structural materials such as keratin, collagen and elastin, muscle proteins. Functional molecules such as enzymes and some hormones. Amnio acids can be burned for energy all-or-none rule - answer all amino acids needed must be present for protein synthesis to occur; if not all present amino acids used for energy Adequacy of caloric intake - answer protein used as fuel i insufficient carbohydrates or fat available Nitrogen balance - answer rate of protein synthesis equals rate of breakdowns and loss Positive NItrogen balance - answer synthesis exceeds breakdown (normal in children, pregnant women, tissue repair) Negative Nitrogen Balance - answer breakdown exceeds synthesis (stress, burns, infection, injury, poor dietary proteins, starvation) Hormonal Controls - answer Anabolic hormones (GH, sex hormones) accelerate protein synthesis and growth Adrenal glucocorticoids (released during stress) promote protein breakdown and conversion of amino acids to glucose
Protein Dietary requirements - answer needs reflect age, size, metabolic rate, nitrogen balance. the rule of thumb- daily intake of 0.8 g per kg body weight. Vitamins - answer organic compound. Crucial in helping body use nutrients. Most function as coenzymes. Vitamin D, some B and K synthesized by intestinal bacteria. rest must be ingested. no one food group contains all vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins - answer B complex and C are absorbed with water. B12 absorption requires intrinsic factor. Not stored in the body Fat-soluble vitamins - answer A,D,E,K absorbed with lipid digestion products. Stored in the body, except for vitamin K Minerals - answer seven required in moderate amounts. others work in trace amounts. work with nutrients to ensure proper body functioning. uptake and excretion balanced to prevent toxic overload What are the seven required minerals? - answer calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine and magnesium Metabolism - answer biochemical reactions inside cell involving nutrients
Glycolysis - answer 10-step pathway. Anaerobic; occurs despite absence or presence of02. Occurs in the cytosol. Glucose moves to make 2 pyretic acid molecules. Three major stages are : sugar activation, sugar cleavage, sugar oxidation and ATP formation Krebs Cycle - answer occurs in mitochondrial matrix. fueled by pyruvic acid and fatty acids. Does not directly use O2. Breakdown products of fats and proteins can also enter cycle. Cycle intermediates may be used as building materials for anabolic reactions Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation - answer directly uses oxygen. NADH+ + H+ and FADH2 deliver hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen atoms combined with O2 make water. Released energy harnessed to make ATP by oxidative phosphorylation Glycogenesis - answer glycogen formation via glycogen synthase when glucose supplies exceed need for ATP synthesis Glycogenolysis - answer glycogen breakdown via glycogen phosphorylase in response to low blood glucose. only hepatocytes, some kidney and intestinal cells Gluconeogenesis - answer glucose formed in liver from glycerol and amino acids when blood glucose levels drop. Proteins against damaging effects of hypoglycemia
lipogenesis - answer dietary glycerol and fatty acids not needed for energy to make stored triglycerides. triglyceride synthesis occurs wen cellular ATP and glucose levels high. Glucose easily converted to fat Lipolysis - answer reverse of lipgenesis. Oxaloadcetic acid necessary for complete oxidation of fat. Homeostatic Imbalance - answer accumulation of ketones in blood to ketosis. Common in starvation, unwise eating, diabetes mellitus. ketone bodies excreted in urine Phosphorylation - answer the addition of a phosphoryl group to a molecule. this and its counterpart , de-phosporlylation, turn many proteins enzymes on and off, thereby altering their function and activity Oxidative phosphorylation - answer the final pathway of aerobic metabolism in which high-energy phosphate bonds are formed by phosphorylation of ADP and ATP tissues - answer group of cells similar in structure that perform common or related function histology - answer study of tissues
lamina , network of collagen fibers. Basement membrane : basal lamina + reticular lamina , reinforces epithelial sheet, resists stretching and tearing, defines epithelial boundary Avascular but Innervated Epithelial Tissue - answer no blood vessels in epithelial tissue. is supported by nerve fibers Regeneration of Epithelial Tissue - answer high regeneration capacity. Stimulated by loss of apical-basal polarity and later contacts. if adequate nutrients can replace lost cells by cell division Classification of Epithelia - answer all epithelial tissues have two names : Simple epithelia and Stratified epithelia. One indicates shape of cells : squamous, cuboidal, columnar. in stratified epithelia, epithelia classified by cell shape in apical layer Cells of Epithelial Tissue - answer Squamous ( flattened and scalelike, nucleus flattened) , cuboidal ( boxlike , nucleus round), columnar ( tall and column shaped, nucleus elongated) Simple Squamous Epithelium - answer Cells flattened laterally , cytoplasm sparse, function where rapid diffusion is priority,
What is the description of Simple Squamous? - answer single layer of flattened cells with disc- shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm, the simplest of epithelia What is the function of Simple Squamous? - answer allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae Where is Simple Squamous located? - answer kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels Simple Cuboidal Epithelia - answer single layer of cells, secretion, absorption, forms walls of smallest ducts of glands and many kidney tubules What is the description of Simple Cuboidal? - answer single layer of cubelike cells with large, spherical central nuclei What is the Function of Simple Cuboidal? - answer secretion and absorption Where is Simple Cuboidal located? - answer kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface
What is the function of Pseudo Stratified Columnar? - answer secrete substances, particularly mucus. propulsion of mucus by cilary action Where is Pseudo Stratified Columnar located? - answer ciliated variety lines the trachea and most of the upper respiratory tract. noncilliated type in males sperm -carrying ducts and ducts of large glands Stratified Epithelial Tissues - answer two or more layers. regenerate from below. more durable that simple epithelia. protection is major role Stratified Squamous Epithelium - answer most widespread or stratified epithelia. free surface squamous; deeper layers cuboidal or columnar. located for wear and tear. those farthest from basal layer less viable. What is the description of Stratified Squamous Epithelium? - answer thick epithelium composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active. surface cells are flattened. in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead. basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of more superficial layers What is the function of Stratified Squamous Epithelium? - answer protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
Were is Stratified Squamous Epithelium located? - answer Nonkeratinized type forms the moist lining of the esophagus, mouth and vagina. The keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry epithelium Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium - answer quite rare. found in some sweat and mammary glands. typically two cell layers thick Stratified Columnar Epithelium - answer limited distribution in body. small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts. also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia. only apical layer columnar Transitional Epithelium - answer forms lining of hollow urinary glands. basal layer are cuboidal or columnar. ability to change shape with stretch. apical cells vary in appearance What is the description of Transitional Epithelium? - answer resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal. basal cells cuboidal or columnar. surface cells dome shaped or squamouslike, depending on degree of organ stretch What is the function of Transitional Epithelium? - answer stretches easily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ
Classification of Multicellular Glands - answer by structure and type of secretion merocrine - answer most- secrete products by exocytosis as produced holocrine - answer accumulate products within then rupture apocrine - answer accumulates products within but only apex ruptures-controversy if exist in humans merocrine gland - answer a gland whose secretory cells produce a secretion but are not destroyed or damaged during the process ( pancreas, most sweat glands, salivary glands) Apocrine gland - answer cells which are classified as apocrine bud their secretions off through the plasma membrane producing membrane-bound vesicles in the lumen (mammary glands) Holocrine gland - answer produced in the cytoplasm of the cell and released by the rupture of the plasma membrane, which destroys the cell and results in the secretion of the products into the lumen Connective Tissue - answer most abundant and widely distributed of primary tissues
What are the four main classes of Connective Tissues? - answer connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood What are the major function of Connective Tissue? - answer binding and support, protecting, insulting, storing reserve fuel, transporting substances 3 Characteristics of Connective Tissue - answer have mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue) as their common tissue origin. Have varying degrees of vascularity (blood vessels). have extracellular matrix Structural Functions of Connective Tissue - answer ground substances, fibers, cells. composition and arrangement varies in different connective tissues Ground Substances - answer unstructured material that fills space between cells (medium through which solutes diffuse between blood capillaries and cells). Components include interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans 3 Types of Connective Tissue Fibers - answer Collagen, elastic, reticular Collagen - answer strongest and most abundant type. tough. provides high tensile strength
macrophages - answer phagocytic cells that "eat" dead cells, microorganisms. function in immune system Connective Tissue Proper - answer all tissue except bone, cartilage and blood. has two subclasses : loose and dense Loose Connective Tissue - answer areolar, adipose, reticular Dense Connective Tissue - answer dense regular, dense irregular, elastic Areolar Connective Tissue - answer support and bind other tissues. most widely distributed. provide reservoir of water and salts. defend against infection. store nutrients as fat. fibroblasts. loose arrangement of fibers. ground substance. when inflamed soaks up fluid to make edema What is the description of Areolar Connective Tissue? - answer gel- like matrix with all three fiber types. cells: fibroblasts. macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells What is the function of Areolar Connective Tissue? - answer wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid
Where is areolar connective tissue located? - answer widely distributed under epithelia of body Adipose Tissue - answer white fat: similar to areolar but grater nutrient storage. Is adipocyte. Brown fat: use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream not to produce ATP What is the description of Adipose Connective Tissue? - answer matrix is areolar, but very sparse. closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet What is the function of Adipose Connective Tissue? - answer provides reserve food fuel. insulates against heat loss. supports and protects organs Where is the Adipose Connective Tissue located? - answer under skin in subcutaneous tissue. around kidneys and eyeballs, within abdomen and in breasts Reticular Connective Tissue - answer Resembles areolar but fibers are reticular fibers.Fibroblasts called reticular cells.Supports free blood cells in lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone marrow What is the description of Reticular Connective Tissue? - answer network of reticular fibers in a typical lose ground substance. a reticular cells lie on the network
