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BIOLOGY EOC STUDY GUIDE
This study guide is designed to help students prepare to take the Biology End-Of-Course Test. This study guide contains
tips on how to prepare for the test and some strategies students might use to perform their best during the test.
STUDY TOOLS AND RESOURCES
It is critical that when studying, students have the appropriate environment that fosters and supports positive study habits.
Listed below are some suggested study tools and resources that students might consider when preparing for the EOC,
during class or independently.
SUGGESTED STEPS FOR USING THE STUDY GUIDE
Become familiar with the design of the study guide. Recognize the purpose of the study guide. Take a few
minutes to browse through the study guide before studying.
Find out what the EOC is and how you are expected to perform in order to be considered proficient in Biology.
Frequently Asked Questions: http://www.fldoe.org/faq/default.asp?Dept=179&Cat=
Improve your study skills and test-taking strategies. Get involved in a study group. Visit a study support website:
http://www.how-to-study.com/.
Identify what the test will assess. For more information: http://fcat.fldoe.org/eoc/pdf/BiologyFL11Sp.pdf
Take a Mock EOC. Check your answers to see how well you did. Try to identify where you need to study
more and what areas you might need to ask for further assistance from your teacher.
STUDY TOOLS AND RESOURCES
STUDY SPACE:
- Comfortable, Good lighting, Minimal Distraction, Work Area
TIME COMMITMENT:
- When? How long? How often?
RESOURCES:
- Dictionary, Textbook, Teacher, Tutor, Study Partner, Notebook, Computer
MATERIALS:
- Study Guide, Pen or Pencil, Highlighter, Paper, Notebook
DESIGN OF THE BIOLOGY EOC
Administration Dates: ____________________________________________________________________
Administration Time: ____________________________________________________________________
PREPARING FOR THE EOC
NOTE: Preparing for the Biology EOC test will take time, effort, and practice. You cannot prepare for the Biology
EOC test in one night!
In order to do your best on the Biology EOC test, it is critical that you take the time to prepare and develop study skills.
First, you need to make sure that your classroom experiences and study time are used efficiently and productively.
Second, it is most helpful to know some general test-taking strategies to ensure that you will achieve the best score.
Here are some important questions to ask yourself when developing your study skills. Your answers may help you
define some areas in which you need to make some improvements.
Study skills can actually be divided into separate target areas: time management, organization, and active participation.
Use these suggestions to help you improve your study skills and your study environment.
- How would you describe yourself as a student?
- What are your study skills strengths and/or weaknesses as a student? What methods help you the most?
- How do you typically prepare for a biology test?
- Compare an ideal study situation (environment) to your actual study environment.
- What can you change about the way you study to make your study time more productive?
SUGGESTED STRATEGIES TO PREPARE FOR THE BIOLOGY EOC TEST
There are some general strategies that you can use to prepare for any test, including the Biology EOC test. These
strategies include:
- Pay attention to your daily / weekly grades in your science class.
- Focus on key factors:
a. In which areas of science are you successful?
b. What has kept you from achieving higher scores?
c. What would you change to allow you to achieve higher scores?
- Remove or minimize any obstacles that might prevent you from studying – or focusing.
- Be prepared.
- Know what standards / skills are being assessed and then practice understanding and using those skills.
- Know the difference betweenreading andskimming; you will need to read in detail first, skim later.
- Don’t wait until the last minute. Begin early and pace yourself.
Strategies to Use the Day Before the
Biology EOC Test
Strategies to Use the Morning of the
Biology EOC Test
Strategies to Use During the Biology
EOC Test
- Review what you have learned
from the study guide.
- Review general test-taking
strategies.
information that shows
connections and relationships
(lists, diagrams, graphic
organizers, etc.).
- Focus attention on the areas
that you are most in need of
improving.
- Read short summaries of each
area to revitalize your memory.
- Get a good night’s sleep.
- Eat a good breakfast (protein =
long-lasting energy).
- Dress appropriately (dress
comfortable and in layers; hot
or cold extremes can affect
your performance).
- Arrive for the test on time.
- Skim notes, text, vocabulary,
and/or diagrams.
- Focus on the test. Block out
what is going on around you.
Listen carefully to directions.
- Budget your time. Allocate
time to work on each question.
- Take a quick break. Put your
pencil down, take a deep
breath, close your eyes – one
minute – then resume.
- Practice positive self-thinking.
- Mark key ideas in your test
booklet and come back to
them.
completely. Read answer
choices completely. Follow the
process of selection and
elimination.
- Check your answers when you
have finished the test.
UNDERSTANDING THE BIOLOGY STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY
NOTE: Biology is a very broad subject. To provide you with the most information related to Biology, it would require
hundreds of pages. This study guide provides you with some specific, summarized information that you will need to
know for the Biology EOC test and it will help to facilitate your study efforts. Your Biology textbook will be your best
source of additional information.
INFORMATION TO STUDY FOR THE BIOLOGY EOC TEST
(Lists, Diagrams, Graphic Organizers, Key Vocabulary, Distinctive Categories, etc.)
Scientific Investigations Hypotheses, Variables, Controls, Measurement / Tools, Data, Charts / Graphs, Communication of Findings Inquiry Activities, Research, Statistical Techniques, Laboratory Reports, Sources of Error, Community Involvement Safety Procedures, Laboratory / Field Studies, Potential Hazards, Manipulate Materials / Equipment Analyze Reports, Scientifically Literate Viewpoint, Adequacy of Experimental Controls, Replication, Interpretations
http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_scientific_method.shtml
HYPOTHESIS: tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation VARIABLE: to vary or change INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: a manipulated variable in an experiment or study whose presence or degree determines the change in the dependent variable DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the observed variable in an experiment or study whose changes are determined by the presence or degree of one or more independent variables CONTROL: a standard against which other conditions can be compared in a scientific experiment
BASIC STEPS FOR AN EXPERIMENT:
- plan the research including determining information sources, research subject selection, and ethical considerations for the proposed research and method,
- design the experiment concentrating on the system model and the interaction of independent and dependent variables,
- summarize a collection of observations to feature their commonality by suppressing details (descriptive statistics),
- reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (statistical inference),
- document and present the results of the study.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN EXPERIMENTS:
- Instrumental error (lack of calibration)
- Personal error (inaccurate observations)
- Sampling error (sample size too small or not random)
- Replication error (lack of consistency and accuracy)
- Experimental design
- Measurement error (lack of accuracy and precision)
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS:
Qualitative – described by words or terms rather than numbers and including subjective descriptions in terms of variables such as color, shape, and smell; often recorded using terms, photographs, or drawings Quantitative – numerical values derived from counts or measurements of a variable; frequently require some kind of instrument use in recording
REPLICATION OF EXPERIMENTS: WHY?
- shows how variable the response can be
- limited resources may affect results; need to determine a compromise between resources and methods
- need to show a difference between pairs of means
- reliability of results
- consistency of methods and procedures and equipment
- analysis of data and interpretation of data to form conclusions
- ability to form a scientifically literate viewpoint with valid supporting data
CELL TRANSPORT:
- Passive Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane without the use of the cell’s energy (with the concentration gradient)
- DIFFUSION – movement of substances across the plasma membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- OSMOSIS – diffusion of water across the plasma membrane from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration
- FACILITATED TRANSPORT – a carrier molecule embedded in the plasma membrane transports a substance across the plasma membrane following the high-to-low concentration gradient - Active Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane that requires the use of the cell’s energy and carrier molecules; substances are moving from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration (against the concentration gradient)
- ENDOCYTOSIS – large particles are brought into the cell
- EXOCYTOSIS – large particles leave the cell - HOMEOSTASIS – internal equilibrium; the plasma membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell; a selectively permeable membrane only allows certain substances to pass through
- Effect of Concentration on a Cell
- HYPOTONIC – water moves in; cell bursts
- HYPERTONIC – water moves out; cell shrivels
- ISOTONIC – no net movement; cell maintains equilibrium
HOMEOSTASIS: Self-regulating mechanism that maintains internal conditions (with individual cells and within organs, systems) Example: body temperature, respiration, nutritional balance, etc. Cells communicate their needs to each other mainly through their cell membranes by releasing chemical messengers that, ultimately, tell the hypothalamus gland in the brain that a change needs to be made in the interstitial fluid. Since it is the ruler of homeostasis, the hypothalamus sends neural and chemical signals to other glands, tissues, organs, and organ systems to adjust the internal environment, the interstitial fluid, so that it is more suitable for all the cells at that particular time. And since we are always changing what we are doing, homeostasis needs to change along with our activities, both day and night. This constantly changing internal environment is the process of homeostasis.
- Negative Feedback: Glucose / Insulin levels in cells
- Positive Feedback: Blood platelets / Blood clotting
BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS: chemical bonds are formed and broken within living things creating chemical reactions that impact the ability to maintain life and carry out life functions
- Cellular Respiration – food molecules are converted to energy; there are three stages to cellular respiration; the first stage is called glycolysis and is anaerobic (no oxygen is required); the next two stages are called the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain and are aerobic (oxygen is required) C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + ENERGY (36 ATP)
- Photosynthesis – plant cells capture energy from the Sun and convert it into food (carbohydrates); plant cells then convert the carbohydrates into energy during cellular respiration; the ultimate source of energy for all living things is the Sun (in Chemosynthesis, organisms use sulfur or nitrogen as the main energy source) 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + ENERGY(from sunlight) C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
- ATP – ATP is a molecule that stores and releases the energy in its bonds when the cell needs it; removing a phosphate group (P) releases energy for chemical reactions to occur in the cell and ATP becomes ADP; when the cell has energy, the energy is stored in the bond when the phosphate group is added to the ADP ATP ADP + P + ENERGY
- Fermentation – when cells are not provided with oxygen in a timely manner, this process occurs to continue producing ATP until oxygen is available again; glucose is broken down; there are two types of fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscle cells) Glucose Lactic Acid + 2ATP Alcoholic Fermentation (plant cells) Glucose CO 2 + Alcohol + 2ATP
ENZYMES:
Enzymes are special proteins that regulate nearly every biochemical reaction in the cell. Different reactions require different enzymes. Enzymes function to:
- Provide energy to cells
- Build new cells
- Aid in digestion
- Break down complex molecules (“substrate” = reactant)
- Catalysts (speed up chemical reactions without being used up or altered)
- Factors that affect enzymes: pH, temperature, and quantity
COMPARISON OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION, PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CHEMOSYNTHESIS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHEMOSYNTHESIS
Food Broken Down Energy from Glucose Released Carbon Dioxide given off Oxygen taken in Produces Carbon Dioxide and Water Does not require Light Occurs in ALL Living Cells Organisms often called Heterotrophs
Food Synthesized Energy from Sun stored in Glucose Carbon Dioxide taken in Oxygen given off Produces Sugars (Glucose) from PGAL Requires Light Occurs only in presence of Chlorophyll Organisms called Autotrophs
Food Synthesized Energy from Methane or Inorganic Material (ex: H gas or Hydrogen sulfide) Organisms often called chemotrophs Organisms called extremophiles Live in environments without oxygen Anaerobic Bacteria Habitats: hydrothermal vents
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION:
Aerobic Respiration –
- requires the presence of oxygen - release of energy from the breakdown of glucose (or another organic compound) in the presence of oxygen - energy released is used to make ATP, which provides energy for bodily processes - takes place in almost all living things Anaerobic Respiration – - occurs in the absence of oxygen - breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen with the production of a small amount of energy - produces less energy than aerobic respiration - often called fermentation - seen as an adaptation for organisms that live in environments that lack oxygen
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction – a single parent produces one or more identical offspring by dividing into two cells - mitosis (protists, arthropods, bacteria by binary fission, fungi, plants); produces large numbers of offspring
- offspring are clones of parents (genetically identical)
- common in unicellular organisms, good for stable environments
- budding, binary fission, conjugation
- quick process (low energy requirement) – produces high number of offspring Sexual Reproduction – pattern of reproduction that involves the production and fusion of haploid sex cells; haploid sperm from father fertilizes haploid egg from mother to make a diploid zygote that develops into a multicellular organism through mitosis
- results in genetic variation (diversity)
- common in multicellular organisms (external or internal fertilization); good for changing environments
- slow process (high energy requirement) – produces low number of offspring
- meiosis = formation of sex cells (gametes)
CELL DIVISION:
- process of copying and dividing the entire cell - the cell grows, prepares for division, and then divides to form new daughter cells - allows unicellular organisms to duplicate in a process called asexual reproduction - allows multicellular organisms to grow, develop from a single cell into a multicellular organism, make other cells to repair and replace worn out cells - three types: binary fission (bacteria and fungi), mitosis, and meiosis
COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Cell cycle consists of interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis Interphase – longest part of cell cycle Growth, metabolism, and preparation for division occurs Duplicates chromosomes (DNA Replication) Mitosis – division of nucleus of the cell
- Prophase - duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers appear
- Metaphase – duplicated chromosomes line up randomly in center of cell between spindle fibers
- Anaphase – duplicated chromosomes pulled to opposite ends of cell
- Telophase – nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes at each end of cell; spindle fibers disappear; chromosomes disperse Cytokinesis – division of plasma membrane; two daughter cells result with exact genetic information (in plant cells a “cell plate” forms along the center of the cell and cuts the cell in half; cell plate forms new cell walls once the plasma membrane divides) RESULTS: Two daughter cells (body cells) Same number of chromosomes as original cell (humans = 46) Cells are diploid (human diploid # = 46 or 23 homologous pairs)
Consists of two cell divisions, but only one chromosome replication (sometimes called reduction division) Each cell division consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase Occurs only in sex cells – to produce more sex cells (gametes) First Meiosis Division Produces cells containing ½ # of double stranded chromosomes Second Meiosis Division Results in formation of four cells Each cell w/ ½ # of single-stranded chromosomes (haploid cells)
Sperm Each primary sperm cell develops into four haploid cells of equal size. As cells mature, the cells lose most of their cytoplasm and develop a long whip-like tail for movement. Egg Each primary egg cell develops into one large haploid cell and three smaller haploid cells called polar bodies. The first meiosis division produces one large cell and one polar body. The second meiosis causes the large cell to produce one egg cell and a polar body; the original smaller polar body divides into two polar bodies. The polar bodies eventually disintegrate. The final egg cell is provided with the larger supply of stored nutrients RESULTS: Four daughter cells (sex cells) ½ # of chromosomes (haploid) with genetic variation (n = 23) Sex cells combine during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid individual
GENETICS:
- branch of biology that deals with heredity
- Gregor Mendel experimented with sweet pea plants in 1800s
- Trait – characteristic an individual receives from its parents
- Gene – carries instructions responsible for expression of traits; a pair of inherited genes controls a trait; one member of the pair comes from each parent; often called alleles
- Homozygous – two alleles of a pair are identical (BB or bb)
- Heterozygous – two alleles of a pair are different (Bb); often called “hybrid”
- Dominant – controlling allele; designated with a capital letter
- Recessive – hidden allele; designated with lower-case letters
- Genotype – genetic makeup of an organism (represented by the letters)
- Phenotype – physical appearance of an organism (description of the letters)
- Monohybrid – cross involving one trait
- Dihybrid – cross involving two traits
- Punnett Square – graphic organizer used to show the probable results of a genetic cross
- Pedigree – graphic organizer to map genetic traits between generations
- Karyotype – chart of metaphase chromosome pairs to study chromosome number / diseases
- Test Cross – mating of an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of known genotype; can help to determine the unknown genotype of the parent
MENDELS LAWS OF HEREDITY:
- Law of Dominance
- the dominant allele will prevent the recessive allele from being expressed
- recessive allele will appear when it is paired with another recessive allele in the offspring
- Law of Segregation
- gene pairs separate when gametes (sex cells) are formed
- each gamete has only one allele of each gene pair
- Law of Independent Assortment
- different pairs of genes separate independently of each other when gametes are formed (Anaphase II in Meiosis)
PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE: Sex Chromosomes
- 23 rd^ pair of chromosomes; Males = XY; Females = XX Sex-Linked Traits
- traits associated with particular sexes
- X-Linked Traits inherited on X chromosome from mother (ex: colorblindness, baldness, hemophilia) Linked Traits
- genes are linked on chromosomes; genes on same chromosome are inherited together; ex: red hair and freckles
- one trait controlled by many genes (ex: hair color, eye color, skin pigment) Multiple Alleles
- presence of more than two alleles for a trait (ex: eye color) Polygenic Inheritance
- one trait controlled by many genes (ex: hair color, skin color); genes may be on the same or different chromosomes Codominance
- phenotypes of both homozygous parents are produced in heterozygous offspring so that both alleles are equally expressed (ex: black chicken + white chicken = checkered chickens), (ex: sickle cell anemia) Incomplete Dominance
- phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygous parents; neither allele is dominant, but combine to display a new trait (ex: red flower + white flower = pink flower) Dominance / Recessive ness
- observed trait is controlled by a homozygous genotype
- ex: dominance disease – Huntington’s; ex: recessive disease – Cystic Fibrosis and Tay Sach’s SOURCES OF VARIATION: Crossing Over
- genes from one chromosome are exchanged with genes from another chromosome
- occurs regularly during meiosis and leads to greater genetic variation
- many different phenotypes are a result of the random assortment of genes that occurs during sexual reproduction Nondisjunction
- during meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes don’t separate
- results in half the sex cells having an extra chromosome and the other half having one less chromosome
- if fertilization occurs with an abnormal sex cell, zygote formed will have either one extra ( trisomy ) or one less ( monosomy ) than the diploid number (ex: Down’s Syndrome caused by extra 21st^ chromosome) Genetic Variation
- influenced by crossing over, mutations, genetic engineering, random assortment of genes, natural selection
- genetic variation controlled by sexual reproduction (does not occur in asexual reproduction)
- gene regulation vs. gene expression – the expression of genes is regulated by turning genes on / off or amount of action
- environment can influence magnitude of gene expression (ex: improper nutrition can prevent proper bone growth)
MUTATIONS:
- change in genetic code - passed from one cell to new cells - transmitted to offspring if occurs in sex cells - most have no effect - Gene Mutation – change in a single gene - Chromosome Mutation – change in many genes - Can be spontaneous or caused by environmental mutagens (radiation, chemicals, etc.)
CLASSIFICATION:
- process in understanding how organisms are related and how they are different
- taxonomy – branch of biology that studies grouping and naming of organisms
- history of classification systems
- 4 th^ Century B.C., Aristotle proposed two groups (plants and animals) and used common names for identification, based on “blood” and “bloodless”
- early 1700s, Carolus Linnaeus developed a system based on physical characteristics
- two kingdoms (plants and animals)
- developed “genus” and “species”
- designed system of naming called binomial nomenclature (“two names”) which gave each organism two names, a genus and a species, Genus always capitalized, both should be underlined or italicized
- Six kingdoms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia
- a dichotomous key is a tool used to identify organisms by using pairs of contrasting characteristics
- basis of current classification: phylogeny, DNA / biochemical analysis, embryology, morphology, Phylogenetic trees
COMPARISON OF KINGDOM CHARACTERISTICS
MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE ANIMALIA Bacteria Prokaryote Unicellular, colonial Aerobic / anaerobic Decomposer Heterotrophic Photosynthetic (some) Chemosynthetic (some) Pathogenic Medicinal Classified by shape Binary fission Vaccines, antibiotics Ex: streptococcus
Protists Eukaryote Unicellular Multicellular Aerobic Pathogenic / parasitic Animal-like (protozoa) Plant-like (algae) Medicinal, food source Mobile Ex: amoeba
Eukaryote Multicelluar Aerobic Decomposer Lack chlorophyll Pathogenic Saprophytic / parasitic Medicinal, food source Heterotrophic Sexual / asexual Alternation of generations Often symbiotic with algae Ex: mushroom
Eukaryote Multicellular Aerobic Producer Photosynthesis Cell wall (cellulose) Vascular system, seeds Poisonous Medicinal, food source Alternation of generations Roots, stems, leaves Pollination(fertilization) Germination Ex: oak
Eukaryote Multicellular Aerobic Consumer Cellular respiration Invertebrates Vertebrates Symmetry
Ex: Homo sapiens
Note: Current classification systems reveal six kingdoms, where Monerans are divided into Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria, anaerobic nature) and Eubacteria (true bacteria, aerobic nature).
Classification of Organisms according to Evolutionary Relationships, Historical Development and Changing Nature of Classification Systems, Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Organics, Eukaryotic Kingdoms, Dichotomous Keys Processes by which Organisms or Representative Groups accomplish Essential Life Functions Adaptations affecting Survival and Reproduction, Structural Adaptations in Plants and Animals, Disease-Causing Viruses and Microorganisms, Co-Evolution Interactive Role of Internal / External Factors in Health and Disease, Genetics, Immune Response, Nutrition, Parasites, Toxins Patterns of Animal Behavior as Adaptations to the Environment, Innate / Learned Behavior
LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION:
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS:
Kingdom Animalia (multicellular organisms that eat food) Phylum Chordata (dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal slits) Class Mammalia (hair, mammary glands, endothermy, four-chambered heart) Order Primates (nails, clavicle, orbits encircled with bone, enlarged cerebrum, opposable digits) Family Homidae (bipedal – walk erect on two feet, advanced tool use) Genus Homo (“human” like) Species Homo sapiens
COMPARISON OF EUKARYOTE TO PROKARYOTE:
Prokaryote – has nuclear material in the center of the cell, but is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane; no membrane bound organelles; examples: bacteria and blue-green algae Eukaryote – contain a clearly defined nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane and membrane bound organelles; examples: plants, animals, fungi, and protists
VIRUSES: Note: Viruses are not considered living organisms!
- composed of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat
- use living cells to replicate viral nucleic acid
- infects a living cell when the virus injects its nucleic acid into the host cell; the viral nucleic acid replicates and makes more viruses
- two processes to infect host cells: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
- lytic: virus attached to host cell injects its nucleic acid into host; nucleic acid is immediately replicated; host bursts; releases virus
- lysogenic: host infected but does not immediately die; viral DNA is replicated along with host DNA; virus becomes dormant; spontaneously enters lytic cycle and cell bursts – may be years later
- viruses can infect animals, plants, and bacteria
- viruses do not respond to drug treatment
- immunity must be acquired naturally or from vaccinations
DICHOTOMOUS KEYS:
- device used to aid in identifying a biological specimen
- offers two alternatives at each juncture, each choice determining the next step; breaks down subgroups by their evolutionary relationships
- can be used for field identification of species, as found in field guides by focusing on practical characteristics Example:
- Leaves usually without teeth or lobes: 2
- Leaves usually with teeth or lobes: 5
- Leaves evergreen: 3
- Leaves not evergreen: 4
- Mature plant a large tree — Southern live oak Quercus virginiana
- Mature plant a small shrub — Dwarf live oak Quercus minima
- Leaf narrow, about 4-6 times as long as broad — Willow oak Quercus phellos
- Leaf broad, about 2-3 times as long as broad — Shingle oak Quercus imbricaria
- Lobes or teeth bristle-tipped: 6
- Lobes or teeth rounded or blunt-pointed, no bristles: 7
- Leaves mostly with 3 lobes — Blackjack oak Quercus marilandica
- Leaves mostly with 7-9 lobes — Northern red oak Quercus rubra
- Leaves with 5-9 deep lobes — White oak Quercus alba
- Leaves with 21-27 shallow lobes — Swamp chestnut oak Quercus prinus Source: Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomous_key )
PLANTS INVERTEBRATES VERTEBRATES Spore-Producing Plants Nonvascular, produce spores Remain small– absorb water by osmosis Sperm swim to fertilize eggs Live in moist environments Reproduce sexually Alternation of Generations (You see the gametophyte generation) Mosses and liverworts Vascular Plants Two types of vascular tissue Xylem – transports water and minerals (UP) Phloem – transports sugars (DOWN) Produce spores Club mosses, horsetails, ferns Require water for reproduction Alternation of Generations (you see the sporophyte generation) Seed Producing Vascular Plants Vascular, Produce seeds Seed = embryo protected by a seed coat Two groups based on reproduction Gymnosperms – cone-bearing Angiosperms – flowering
- monocots (corn) and dicots (flowers) Roots – anchor, absorb water, store food Stems – support, transport Leaves – photosynthesis, produces food Adaptations – seed, pollen, fruit, flowers Pollination – fertilization, germination
Three types of symmetry No symmetry (disorganized) Radial symmetry (around a central point) Bilateral symmetry (equal on both sides) Specialized bodily functions No backbone, usually outer covering (exoskeleton) May be hydrostatic (water-based, aquatic) Sponges (Porifera) No symmetry Cnidarians (Coelenterata) Jellyfish, hydrostatic, radial symmetry Specialized stinging cells in tentacles Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) Leeches, bilateral symmetry Suckers for removing fluids from host Roundworms (Nematoda) Parasites, radial symmetry Segmented worms earthworms decomposers Mollusks (Mollusca) Clams, oysters (bivalves) Hard outer shell (calcium carbonate) Food source Arthropods (Arthropoda) Crabs, insects (segmented body) Pollinators, bilateral symmetry Echinoderms (Echinodermata) starfish radial symmetry
Have a coelom (true body cavity) Skeletal systems (endoskeleton) Strong, flexible backbone (support) Bilateral symmetry Aquatic or terrestrial environments Organized systems Jawless fishes Lampreys Cartilaginous fishes Sharks, cartilage Bony fishes Bass, trout Scales, paired fins, gills, bone External fertilization Amphibians Salamanders, frogs Moist skin and lack scales Have gills as young, lungs and limbs as adults External fertilization Reptiles Snakes, turtles Dry, scaly skin Internal fertilization Terrestrial eggs (leathery shells) Developed lungs, strong limbs Birds Hawks, eagles, robin Feathers, hollow bones, strong muscles Efficient heart and lungs for flying Internal fertilization (terrestrial amniotic egg) Mammals Humans, monkeys, whales Hair or fur Internal fertilization (internal development)
EXAMPLES OF INFECTIOUS ORGANISMS:
- Bacteria – microscopic, single celled Streptococcus pyogenes (strep throat) Escherichia coli (urinary tract or intestinal infection)
- Viruses – cannot reproduce on its own (invades a host cell) Varicella zoster (chicken pox) Rhinovirus (common cold)
- Fungi – yeasts, molds, mushrooms Candida albicans (yeast infection) Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot)
- Parasites – organism such as a worm or single celled animal ( protozoan ) that survive by living inside another organism (host) Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) Plasmodium falciparum (malaria)
DEFENSES AGAINST INFECTION:
First Line of Immune Defense:
- Physical Barriers - skin, mucous membranes (linings of the mouth, nose, eyelids), airways, stomach acid, pancreatic enzymes, bile, intestinal secretions, urinary secretions Second Line of Immune Defense:
- Blood – increasing the number of certain types of white blood cells that engulf and destroy invading microorganisms
- Inflammation – release or substances from damaged tissue isolates area to attack and kill invaders and dispose of dead and damaged tissue, and to begin repair; blood supply increases which brings more white blood cells to swollen area
- Fever – body temperature increases to enhance defense ability (controlled by hypothalamus in brain); causes shivers, chills, body aches; normal body temperature is 98.6ºF, a fever is considered higher then 100ºF. Third Line of Immune Defense:
- Immune Response – immune system responds by producing substances that attack invaders (ex: killer T cells, phagocytes) and the immune system produces antibodies that attach to and immobilize the invader to kill it; antibodies will “remember” the infectious organism so it will kill it upon next exposure; immune system is present all over the body and tightly bound to blood and lymph systems; tissues and cells that provide antibodies include red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, circulating lymphatic system, and white blood cells.
- There are two types of immunity:
- Natural Immunity – created by body’s natural physical barriers or in the form of antibodies passed from mother to child
- Acquired Immunity – created by exposure to a specific microorganism, which is “remembered” by the body’s immune system - Immunization – body’s ability to fight off certain organisms is stimulated or enhanced
- Active Immunization – contain either noninfectious fragments or whole pieces of bacteria or viruses that have been weakened so they will not cause infection but will instead cause the production of antibodies (vaccination)
- Passive Immunization – antibodies against a specific infectious organism are given directly to the person (vaccine may not be available) External Defenses:
- Antibiotics – organic substances synthesized by microorganisms or at a lab used to treat infectious diseases or to prevent them; each antibiotic is specific to a certain bacteria; can be administered by mouth, vein, or muscle
- Hygiene – keeping a clean environment that limits exposure to infected bodily fluids, decomposing material, or infected people will prevent the spread of infection
The Lymphatic System, Source:
http://www.trichocare.co.uk/colourstart/whatishyp
ersensitivity/immune/
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE:
- some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics because they have enzymes that can destroy the antibiotics or because of genetic mutation that allow them to grow despite the antibiotics
- increasing numbers of microorganisms have become resistant to antibiotics are violent and untreatable, now called “superbugs”
- overuse of antibiotics has led to the development of resistant bacteria How can you prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance?
- avoid antibiotics unless they are clearly needed
- do not take antibiotics without the advice of a doctor
- take the full course of prescription
- do not save antibiotics for later
- do not demand antibiotics from the doctor
ANIMAL BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS: Behavior – animal’s response to a stimulus Innate behavior – instinct; influenced by genes Ex: bird defending its nest Learned behavior – changed by experience Ex: training a pet to respond to a specific name Social behavior – interactions between members of the same species Ex: mating and caring for offspring Territorial behavior – organisms defend an area to keep out other organisms (ex: animal marking trees) Reflex – automatic, neuromuscular action (ex: knee jerk) Taxis – response to a directional stimulus; organism is motile
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS AND RHYTHMIC BEHAVIOR:
- 24 hour cycle in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria
- Biological rhythms can be daily, weekly, seasonal, annual
- Can be influenced by external factors such as sunlight and temperature
- Rhythmic behavior can be passed through genes to offspring
- Include behaviors such as sleeping, eating, brainwave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, mating and sexual reproduction, hibernation, estivation, etc.
Interrelationships among Organisms / Populations / Communities / Ecosystems, Techniques of Field Ecology, Abiotic / Biotic Factors, Carrying Capacity Flow of Energy and Cycling of Matter in the Ecosystem, Relationship of Carbon Cycle to Photosynthesis and Respiration, Trophic Levels, Direction and Efficiency of Energy Transfer Human Population and its Impact on Local Ecosystems and Global Environments, Historic and Potential Changes in Population, Factors associated with Population Change, Climate Change, Resource Use, Sustainable Practices / Stewardship
ADAPTIVE RESPONSES:
- Mimicry – structural adaptation that allows one species to resemble another species; may provide protection from predators - Camouflage – structural adaptation that enables species to blend with their surroundings; allows a species to avoid detection - Migration – instinctive seasonal movements of animals from place to place - Emigration – movement of individuals from a population; leaving the population - Immigration – movement of individuals into a population
- Hibernation – state of reduced metabolism occurring in animals that sleep during parts of cold winter months; an animal’s temperature drops, oxygen consumption decreases, and breathing rate declines - Estivation – state of reduced metabolism that occurs in animals living in conditions of intense heat
- Mating / Reproduction – production of offspring for the survival of the species; can be seasonally scheduled
PLANT TROPISM:
Growth responses that result in curvature of plant organs towards or away from stimuli due to different rates of elongation Geotropism – response to gravity; roots have positive geotropism; stems have negative geotropism Phototropism – response to light (leaves) Hydrotropism – response to water (roots) Thigmotropism – response to touch (venus flytrap) Chemotropism – response to chemicals
ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM SUN >>>>> GRASS >>>>> MICE >>>>> HAWK Sunlight is the main energy source for living things. Energy flows through an ecosystem from the sun to organisms within the ecosystem in one direction. Two main groups of organisms in the ecosystem are the producers and consumers. Producers – autotrophs, use sun’s energy to make their own food, plants (grass) Consumers – heterotrophs, cannot make their own food, eat other living things to get their energy (mice- primary consumers; and hawk- secondary consumer)
STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM Organism >>>>> Species >>>>> Population >>>>> Community >>>>> Ecosystem >>>>> Environment Species – group of organisms that can interbreed Population – units of single species Community – groups of interacting populations Ecosystem – groups of interacting communities Habitat – place where an organism lives Niche – organism’s role within its habitat
GROUPS OF ORGANISMS
Consumer Energy Source Example Herbivore Eat plants Deer Carnivore Eat other animals Lion Omnivore Eat plants and animals
Human
Decomposer Break down dead organisms
Bacteria & Fungi
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS:
Symbiosis – permanent, close association between one or more organisms of different species Mutualism – a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit (ex: in subtropical regions, ants protect acacia trees by fighting invaders, acacia tree provides nectar to ants) Commensalism – symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited (ex: Spanish moss grows on and hangs from limbs of trees, but does not obtain any nutrients from tree, nor harm the tree) Parasitism – symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another, usually another species (ex: parasites such as bacteria, roundworms, tapeworms live in the intestines of organisms to obtain nutrients and reproduce, but cause disease in the organisms)
CARBON CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS (BIOMES):
AQUATIC: based on flow, depth, temperature, chemistry TERRESTRIAL: based on geography, rainfall, temperature Tropical Rain Forest – significant diversity, warm, moist Savanna – grassland with isolated trees, warm year- round, consistent rainfall, borders deserts Desert – hot, dry, minimal rainfall, middle latitudes Temperate Grassland – variety of grasses, cold winters, warm summers, seasonal rainfall, borders savannas Temperate Forest – deciduous, seasonal growth and weather patterns Taiga – coniferous, borders tundra Tundra – cold, frozen Marine – oceans, saltwater, large diversity Freshwater – lakes, streams, lower diversity
IMPACT OF HUMANS ON THE ENVIRONMENT:
- caused extinction of species through hunting, fishing, agriculture, industry, urban development
- growing population = greater demands on environment
- affected quality and quantity of land, air, water resources
- Pollution = pollutants
- Air Pollution = smog, acid rain, dust, smoke, gases, fog, carbon dioxide
- Water Pollution = sewers, industry, farms, homes, chemical waste, fertilizer, dirty dish water
- Land Pollution = landfills, dumpsites, runoff, negligence, urban wastes CONSERVATION EFFORTS:
- conserve energy resources
- protect and conserve material resources
- control pollution (recapture wastes, carpooling, solid waste neutralization)
- wildlife conservation protect animals from habitat loss, over- hunting, pollution
- reduce, reuse, recycle programs
- sanitation and waste disposal programs CRITICAL ISSUES:
- Global Warming, Pesticides, Population Growth
FLUCTUATIONS IN CARRYING CAPACITY
SUCCESSION:
- orderly, natural changes, and species replacements that take place in communities of an ecosystem over time Primary Succession – colonization of barren land by pioneer organisms (soil must be developed) Secondary Succession – sequence of changes that take place after a community is disrupted by natural disasters or human actions (soil already present)
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION CHANGE:
- natural increase of a population depends on the number of births and deaths
- if births outnumber deaths, there will be an increase in population
- growth rate of a population measured in terms of birth rate (number of births per 1000 people per year) and death rate (number of deaths per 1000 people per year)
- fertility rates (number of babies), life expectancy, migration / immigration also contribute to population change
- study of population is called demography; a census is a measure of the population at a particular time
