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Big
Idea
Investigation 8 T
Genetics and Information Transfer^3
investigation 8
BioteCHnoLogY:
BaCteRiaL tRansFoRMation*
How can we use genetic engineering techniques to
manipulate heritable information?
■ ■ BACKGROUND
Are genetically modified foods safe? There is ongoing debate about whether it is safe to eat fruit and vegetables that are genetically modified to contain toxins that ward off pests. For instance, biotechnologists have succeeded in inserting a gene (Bt) from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the corn genome. When expressed, the Bt gene produces a toxin that kills caterpillars and controls earworms that damage corn — but is the corn safe for human consumption? Genetic information passed from parent to offspring via DNA provides for continuity of life. In order for information in DNA to direct cellular activities, it must be transcribed into RNA. Some of the RNAs are used immediately for ribosomes or to control other cellular processes. Other RNAs are translated into proteins that have important roles in determining metabolism and development, i.e., cellular activities and phenotypes (traits). When the DNA of a cell changes, the RNAs and proteins they produce often change, which in turn changes how that cell functions. DNA inside a cell can change several ways. It can be mutated, either spontaneously or after the DNA replication machinery makes an error. Biotechnologists may cause an intentional mutation in a cell’s own DNA as a way to change how that cell behaves. The most powerful tool biotechnologists have, though, is the ability to transfer DNA from one organism into another and make it function there. With this tool, they can make cells produce novel protein products that the cells did not make previously. Stimulate student interest in the investigation by describing applications of genetic engineering. For example, insulin that people take to control their blood sugar levels is often made from engineered bacteria. Some vaccines, as well as enzymes used for manufacturing denim jeans, are also made using engineered cells. In the near future, engineered bacteria and other cells being developed could help clean up spilled oil or chemicals, produce fuel for cars and trucks, and even store excess carbon dioxide to help slow global climate change. Ask students to think of other possible applications of biotechnology. Remind students, however, that human manipulation of DNA raises several ethical, social, and medical issues, such as the safety of genetically modified foods. The techniques required for gene transfer in higher plants and animals are complex, costly, and difficult even in the research laboratory. However, the techniques of gene transfer in Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria are simple and appropriate for the teaching and learning laboratory (Rapoza and Kreuzer 2004). One common technology,
- Transitioned from the AP Biology Lab Manual (2001)
T144■ Investigation 8
bacterial plasmid-based genetic transformation, enables students to manipulate genetic information in a laboratory setting to understand more fully how DNA operates. In this investigation, students will first acquire the tools to transform E. coli bacteria to express new genetic information using a plasmid system and apply mathematical routines to determine transformation efficiency. (Competent bacterial cells are able to take up exogenous genetic material and are capable of being transformed, and the procedure provided is designed to promote competence. An excellent preparation of competent cells will yield approximately 10^8 transformed colonies per microgram of plasmid; a poor preparation will yield approximately 10^4 or less transformed colonies per microgram of plasmid.) Students then have the opportunity to design and conduct individual experiments to explore transformation in more depth. For example, students can select a factor of their choice and explore its ability to induce mutations with observable phenotypes, or they can investigate if bacteria take up more plasmid in some environmental conditions and less in others. They also can explore answers to questions about plasmids and transformation that might have been raised during the initial investigation. This investigation also provides students with the opportunity to review, connect, and apply concepts that they have studied previously, including cell structure of bacteria; structure and function of cell membranes, enzymes, and DNA and RNA; transcription and translation; the operon model of the regulation of gene expression; evolution and natural selection; and interactions between organisms and their environment. Interspersed within each investigation are supplemental activities designed to keep students on track and to provide opportunities for them to take a deeper dive into the concepts. You may assign these activities for homework or ask students to do them as they work through the investigation.
■ ■ PREPARATION
Materials and Equipment
Supplies for plasmid transformation systems may be purchased in kits from commercial vendors or purchased individually, depending on your current inventory. A partial list of suppliers is provided in the Supplemental Resources section. At minimum, plasmids should contain the gene for ampicillin resistance (pAMP), as experimental procedures typically use ampicillin to select transformed cells. In addition, plasmids with colored marker genes like beta-GAL and fluorescence markers like green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its cousins make it possible to measure gene expression directly, to follow cell populations as they grow or move, and to find cells that have taken up a second plasmid that we cannot see easily. Thus, you have freedom in choosing a plasmid transformation system. The following materials are included in a typical eight-station ampicillin-resistant plasmid system. The list will vary depending on the system used. Materials and supplies needed for each student workstation are provided in the student version of this investigation. Students are encouraged to set up their own workstations. Note that you might need additional materials such as agar plates and nutrient agar for the student inquiry investigations.
T146■ Investigation 8
Common Workstation
- Plasmid (pAMP), hydrated (20 μg) - 42°C water bath and thermometer - 37°C incubator or equivalent - 20 μL adjustable volume micropipettes and tips (optional) - 10% household bleach - Biohazardous waste disposal bags - Masking or lab tape
■ ■ PREPARATION
Advance Preparation Quick Guide for Teachers
Step Objective Time■Required When Step 1 Prepare agar plates.
1 hr. 3–7 days prior
Step 2 Rehydrate E. coli. Streak starter plates. Rehydrate plasmid DNA, if necessary.
2 min. 15 min. 2 min.
24–36 hours prior
Step 3 Aliquot solutions. Set up workstations.
10 min. Immediately prior
■ ■ Advance■Preparation■for■Step■1:■
3–7 Days Before the Transformation
■ 1.■ Prepare nutrient agar (autoclave-free). The agar plates should be prepared at least three days before the investigation(s) are performed. Plates should be left out at room temperature for two days and then refrigerated until use. (Two days at room temperature allows the agar to cure, or dry, sufficiently to readily take up the liquid transformation solution.) Hint : If time is short, incubate the plates at 37°C overnight. This will dry them out as well, but it shortens their shelf life. Refrigerated plates are good for up to 30 days. To prepare the agar, add 500 mL of distilled water to a one liter or larger Erlenmeyer flask. Add the entire content of the LB nutrient agar packet. Swirl the flask to dissolve the agar and heat to boiling in a microwave or water bath or by using a hot plate with stir bar. Heat and swirl until all the agar is dissolved. CAUTION: Be careful to allow the flask to cool a little before swirling so that the hot medium does not boil over onto your hand. When all the agar is dissolved, allow the LB nutrient agar to cool so that the outside of the flask is just comfortable to hold (approximately 50°C.). While the agar is cooling, you can label the plates and prepare the ampicillin as outlined below in
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Step 3. CAUTION: Do not let the agar cool so much that is begins to solidify. Keeping the flask with liquid agar in a water bath at 45–50°C can help prevent the agar from cooling too quickly. Preprepared nutrient agar also can be purchased. However, it will have to be melted before it can be poured into plates. To do this, the plastic bottles containing solid agar can be microwaved at a low temperature (such as using the “poultry defrost” option) for several minutes. Be sure to loosen the cap slightly to expel any air. At high microwave temperatures, the agar can boil over. Another option is to place the bottles in a hot water bath; however, this will take up to 45 minutes or so to melt the agar. CAUTION: Be careful when handling the bottle(s). They will get hot!
■ 2.■ Prepare ampicillin. Ampicillin is either shipped dry in a small vial or already hydrated. If shipped dry, you need to hydrate the ampicillin. Do this by adding 3 mL of transformation solution to the vial to rehydrate the antibiotic. Use a sterile pipette. Note: Excessive heat (≥60°C) will destroy ampicillin. With this in mind, here’s the tricky part: the nutrient agar solidifies at 27°C, so you must be careful to monitor the cooling of the agar and then pour the plates from start to finish without interruption. Keeping the flask with liquid agar in a water bath set to 45–50°C can help prevent the agar from cooling too quickly. Before adding ampicillin to the flask of agar, make sure you can hold the flask in your bare hand (approximately 50°C). If your hand tolerates the temperature of the flask, so will the antibiotic!
■ 3.■ Label plates. While the agar is cooling, reduce preparation time by labeling the plates. Label with a permanent marker on the bottom of each plate close to the edge. For each class using an eight-station kit, label 16 plates LB and 16 plates LB/amp.
■ 4.■ Pour nutrient agar plates. First, pour LB nutrient agar into the 16 plates that are labeled LB. If you do not do this and add ampicillin to the flask with agar, you will not be able to make control plates containing just nutrient agar. Fill each plate to about one-third to one-half (approximately 12 mL) with agar and replace the lid. You may want to stack the plates and let them cool in the stacked configuration. Second, add the hydrated ampicillin to the remaining LB nutrient agar. Swirl briefly to mix. Pour into the 16 plates labeled LB/amp using the same technique. Plates should set within 30 minutes.
■ 5.■ Store the plates. After the plates have cured for two days at room temperature, they may be either used or stored by stacking them in a plastic sleeve bag slipped back down over them. The stack is then inverted, the bag taped closed, and the plates stored upside down at 4°C until used. (The plates are inverted to prevent condensation on the lid, which may drip onto the agar.)
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b.■ For subsequent streaks, use as much of the surface area of the plate as possible. After the initial streak, rotate the plate approximately 45 degrees and start the second streak. Do not dip into the rehydrated bacteria a second time! Go into the previous streak about two times and then back and forth as shown for a total of about 10 times.
c.■ Rotate the plate again and repeat streaking.
d.■ Rotate the plate for the final time and make the final streak. Repeat steps a–c with the remaining LB plates for each student workstation. Although you can use the same inoculation loop for all starter plates, it is recommended that you use a new, sterile loop for each plate if you have enough. When you are finished with each plate, cover it immediately to avoid contamination.
e.■ Place the plates upside down inside the incubator overnight at 37°C or at room temperature for 2–3 days if an incubator is unavailable. Use for transformation within 24–36 hours because bacteria must be actively growing to achieve high transformation efficiency. (Remember, bacterial growth is exponential.) Do not refrigerate before use. This will slow bacterial growth.
f.■ E. coli forms off-white colonies that are uniformly circular with smooth edges. Avoid using plates with contaminant colonies such as mold.
■ 3.■ Prepare plasmid. The quantity of DNA is so small that the vial may appear empty. Tap the vial or spin it in a microcentrifuge to ensure that the DNA is not sticking to the cap. If the plasmid is not hydrated, refer to instructions that come with the sample. Store the vial of hydrated DNA in a refrigerator. Rehydrated plasmid should be used within 24 hours.
■ ■ Advance■Preparation■for■Step■3:■
Immediately Before Transformation Investigation
■ 1.■ Aliquot solutions. Each student workstation will need 1 mL of transformation solution and 1 mL of LB nutrient broth. You might have to aliquot these solutions into separate color-coded 2 mL microtubes. If the LB nutrient broth is aliquoted one day prior to the lab, it should be refrigerated. Make sure to label the tubes with permanent marker.
■ 2.■ Set up student and common workstations. See the list of materials to be supplied at each workstation. Some leftover materials can be combined and stored for future use. For example, extra salt solutions (CaCl 2 in the case of this lab), solutions of DNA, and buffers can be stored in a refrigerator freezer. Where possible, standardize materials for use in multiple labs. This allows you to keep fewer items but larger quantities, giving some leeway for making extra as needed. However, if the plasmid goes through multiple freeze-thaw cycles in a frost-free freezer, the DNA in the plasmid can degrade. It is recommended that you check the shelf life of materials with the commercial vendor.
T150■ Investigation 8
Another tip is to keep a running list of students’ experiments. After a couple of lab cycles, you should know what students are likely to want to use for their independent investigations, so you can have the materials on hand in advance. Although this seems counterintuitive because you want students to follow their curiosity, having certain materials available will cut down on time and costs.
■ ■ Timing■and■Length■of■Lab
Consider this investigation to be a learning module, not a typical teacher-directed “cookbook lab.” The investigation provides students myriad opportunities to develop biotech laboratory skills; as they work through the background information and answer questions, they are exploring concepts more deeply.
Day 1
Allow approximately one class period (45–60 minutes) to preview the lab and let students work through the background information and prelab questions interspersed in the Getting Started section of the investigation. Alternatively, you can assign this material for homework.
Day 2
Allow one class period (45–60 minutes) for students to transform cells and spread plates.
Day 3
It may take longer than 24 hours for students to be able to observe transformed cells. You will have to monitor the incubation conditions and bacterial growth/transformation. Allow approximately one class period (45–60 minutes) for students to observe transformants and controls, analyze and interpret results, and calculate transformation efficiency. One option is to assign postlab assessment questions for homework, although student collaboration is recommended.
Day 4+
Allow one or two class periods for students to design and conduct an independent investigation. Time will be needed for post experimental observation and data analysis. In addition, students should be given time to present their results to peers. If students have performed colony transformation experiments before, they may review Procedure and proceed to the independent investigation(s). However, it is recommended that all students read the background information and work through Getting Started.
■ ■ Safety■and■Houskeeping
- Students must apply basic sterile technique when working with and culturing bacteria. Although the strain of E. coli and the DNA plasmid used in this investigation are not pathogenic, their handling requires appropriate microbiological procedures. - Remind students to wash their hands when entering or leaving the lab area. They should not eat, drink, apply cosmetics, or use personal electronic devices in the work area.
T152■ Investigation 8
- The student can use representations to describe how gene regulation influences cell products and function (3B1 & SP 1.4). - The student is able to predict how a change in genotype, when expressed as a phenotype, provides a variation that can be subject to natural selection (3C1 & SP 6.4, SP 7.2). - The student is able to construct an explanation of the multiple processes that increase variation within a population (3C2 & SP 6.2).
■ ■ ■ARE■STUDENTS■READY■TO■COMPLETE■A■SUCCESSFUL■■
INQUIRY-BASED,■STUDENT-DIRECTED■INVESTIGATION?
This investigation reinforces the following skills:
- Using pipettes (plastic bulb-type or other volumetric measuring devices) - Measuring temperature (°C) - Applying metric system - Applying quantitative skills
■ ■ Skills■Development
Students will develop the following skills:
- Using sterile technique - Disposing properly of materials and solutions that come in contact with bacteria - Transferring bacterial colonies from agar plates to microtubes - Transforming bacterial cells with plasmid DNA - Delivering transformed cultures to agar plates - Applying mathematics to quantify transformation efficiency
■ ■ Potential■Challenges
With any type of microbiology technique, including working with and culturing bacteria, it is important not to introduce contaminating microorganisms into the experiment. When students are working with the inoculation loops, pipettes, and agar plates, you should stress that the round circle at the end of the loop, the tip of the pipette, and the surface of the agar plate should not be touched or placed onto contaminating surfaces, such as bench tops. While some contamination will likely not ruin the investigation, students should practice sterile technique. You might consider having students do a dry run of the procedures to practice sterile technique before working with bacteria. Best results are obtained if starter plates are fresh (24–36 hr growth), with bacterial colonies measuring about 1–1.5 mm in diameter. Refrigeration of cultured plates will significantly lower transformation efficiency. The optimum temperature for growing E. coli is 37°C.
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Students often have difficulty reading the graduations (markings) on the plastic pipette. (If students are using automatic pipetting devices, you should provide instruction on how to load and dispel minute samples.) The 100 μL, 250 μL, and 1 mL marks will be used as units of measurement. (You might need to remind students that “μl” and “μL” are alternative symbols for the same volumetric measurement.)
Bio_T_Lab08_
750 l
500 l
250 l
100 l
1ml
Figure■2.■Measuring■Volume■with■a■Pipette
Another challenge area for students is transferring bacterial colonies from agar plates to microtubes. Students are tempted to scrape more bacterial colonies off the starter plate than are necessary. A single colony that is 1 mm in diameter contains millions of bacterial cells. To increase transformation efficiency, students should select 2–4 “fat” colonies that are 1–1.5 mm in diameter. Students should select individual colonies rather than a swab of bacteria from the dense portion of the plate. Remind students that “less is more.”
The transfer of plasmid DNA from its stock tube to the transformation suspension is crucial. Unless you are confident that students can make this transfer successfully, consider adding the plasmid to the transformation suspensions yourself. Look carefully at the loop to see if there is a film of plasmid solution across the ring, similar to seeing a soapy film across a ring for blowing soap bubbles. Do not add more plasmid than is recommended in the procedure — unless students want to do a little independent investigating about the relationship between the amount of plasmid and the efficiency of transformation of E. coli. Over-saturating the cell solution with DNA decreases the transformation efficiency.
Impatient students often skip steps in the procedure or fail to read instructions carefully. In this investigation, they must adhere to the instructions unless they are conducting an independent experiment on the effect(s) of varying the transformation procedure. The “heat shock” procedure increases the bacterial uptake of foreign DNA, and the rapid temperature change and the duration of the heat shock are critical. For optimal results, the tubes containing the cell suspensions must be taken directly from ice, placed into the water bath at 42°C (have a student monitor the temperature) for 50 seconds, and returned immediately to the ice. The absence of the heat shock will result in a 10-fold decrease in transformants; 90 seconds of heat shock will give about half as many transformants as will 50 seconds of heat shock.
About one percent of bacterial cells can be transformed under laboratory conditions. Factors affecting transformation efficiency include the size of the bacterial colony used, the amount of plasmid used, technique, and incubation times. Some E. coli strains are more susceptible to transformation than others due to the composition of the cell wall.
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Big idea 3: genetiCs and inFoRMation tRansFeR
As students work through the introductory material, several questions will emerge about transformation and the use of plasmids to transfer genetic information. One strategy for prelab assessment is to join student groups, encourage them to ask questions beyond those listed in the investigation, listen to their answers, and then ask more probing questions.
Using Plasmids with Colored Marker Genes
If you choose a plasmid system that includes colored marker genes like beta-GAL and fluorescent markers like GFP and its cousins, you might want to consider taking students through a more in-depth prelab activity. This activity is also appropriate for students who are familiar with transformation experiments performed in a previous biology class. Using pGLO plasmid to transform bacteria, students observe the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). Students can work through the activity for homework or as a group. Spark students’ interest in GFP by having them do a little online investigation about jellyfish that glow in the dark. What makes bioluminescent jellyfish, Aequorea victoria, easy to spot in deep, dark water is the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). The GFP gene can be transferred into bacteria, and if transformation is successful, the bacteria will express their newly acquired jellyfish gene and glow brilliant green under ultraviolet (UV) light. Ask students to discuss the following question: Suppose you have a plasmid that contains both the gene for GFP (pGLO) and a gene for resistance to ampicillin (pAMP). How will you be able to tell if bacterial cells have been transformed using the plasmid containing genes for GFP and ampicillin resistance? Take this a step further by having students examine the plasmid in Figure 3 and the corresponding caption.
GFP (the Aequorea victoria jellyfish gene) codes for green fluorescent protein, and araC is the gene that codes for the protein that regulates transcription of GFP. Bla is the gene that codes for beta-lactamase, an enzyme that confers resistance to ampicillin by disabling ampicillin molecules. “Ori” is the plasmid’s origin of replication, and the arrows indicate the direction of transcription and translation.
Bio_T_Lab08_
araC
GFP
bla
ori pGLO
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■Figure■3.■pGLO■Plasmid
In addition to genes for green fluorescent protein and resistance to ampicillin, the pGLO plasmid has a special gene regulation system that switches on GFP production if the sugar arabinose is present in the nutrient medium, and the bacteria glow when exposed to UV light. This system is an example of an inducible operon.
T156■ Investigation 8
Using the information above, ask students to construct a diagram of the arabinose operon, showing the activity of the various components described in the presence of arabinose, and then in the absence of the sugar. The following questions can guide their thinking:
- What evidence will indicate whether your attempts at performing a genetic transformation are successful? - What will agar plates containing arabinose look like if they contain transformed cells? Without arabinose?
■ ■ Designing■and■Conducting■Independent■Investigations
There are several directions in which students can go with their own investigations. ■ 1.■ Students can determine whether any satellite colonies have been transformed. Do not tell them this in advance, but the majority of satellite colonies form when transformed cells release beta-lactamase (the enzyme encoded by the plasmid that degrades ampicillin) into the surrounding medium. Nontransformed bacteria can then survive and grow. ■ 2.■ Students can vary the transformation process by altering the amount of DNA, ratio of transformation solutions, time for heat shock, or growth stage of bacteria. ■ 3.■ Students can investigate the effects of mutations on gene expression and whether mutations affect plasmids. However, you must make sure that any mutagens students choose to explore are safe. There are several postulated or proven mutagens that students likely could handle safely, including the following:
- Dilute hydrogen peroxide - Caffeine - UV light source (The bacteria must be kept in the dark to prevent DNA repair, and students must wear UV goggles.) - Potassium nitrate (used in food preservation)
■ 4.■ Can bacteria take up two different plasmids? This is an advanced investigation that requires two different plasmids. However, it can lead to very interesting outcomes because some pairs of plasmids are compatible, while others are not. ■ 5.■ Does having this plasmid give the bacteria an advantage other than antibiotic resistance? Mix equal amounts of transformed bacteria with untransformed bacteria, and plate them together on one plate. Which colonies are bigger after 24 hours? Which colonies are more numerous? This investigation would tie nicely into labs on interspecific competition or natural selection.
T158■ Investigation 8
■ ■ SUPPLEMENTAL■RESOURCES
■ ■ Background■Information/Prelab■Activities
http://biology.arizona.edu The University of Arizona Biology Project is an online interactive resource for learning biology, with an extensive molecular biology/biotechnology module.
Curriculum Module (Professional Development), AP Biology: From Gene to Protein— A Historical Perspective, College Board, 2010. This set of instructional strategies developed by AP Biology teachers takes students on an inquiry-based journey as they explore key discoveries that allowed scientists to identify DNA as the molecule of heredity and how it is able to store, retrieve, and transmit information necessary for living systems. Drawing their own conclusions, students explore the contributions of notable scientists, including Frederick Griffith, Hershey and Chase, Watson and Crick, and Meselson and Stahl. The instructional activities are examples of how teachers can engage students by accommodating their different learning styles, knowledge bases, and abilities and, at the same time, provide depth of content and skills.
http://dnalc.org. Dolan DNA Learning Center, Cold Spring Harbor. This resource provides myriad interactive activities for students to prepare students for conducting investigations using biotechnology practices, including DNA Subway and iPlant Collaborative.
Griffith, AJ, Natural plasmids of filamentous fungi, Microbiol. Rev. 1995 December 59(4), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
Johnson, A. Daniel, 40 Inquiry Exercises for the College Biology Lab, NSTA Press, Arlington, VA, 2009. This information provides great insight into developing student-directed, inquiry- based laboratory investigations for advanced students, while also providing strategies on how teachers can adapt their more teacher-directed labs into opportunities for independent exploration. Unit 3 in the manual, “DNA Isolation and Analysis,” provides exercises for more advanced students to use bioinformatics programs to study and manipulate DNA sequences.
http://phschool.com/science/biology_place Developed by Pearson Education, this interactive and informative resource allows students to visualize and apply their understanding of biological concepts. Designed for AP Biology students, Lab Bench connects laboratory procedures to key concepts.
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Big idea 3: genetiCs and inFoRMation tRansFeR
■ ■ Procedural■Resources
Bio-Rad Biotechnology Explorer™ pGLO Bacterial Transformation Kit, Catalog #166-003EDU, www.explorer.bio-rad.com This guided inquiry-based curriculum module developed by Bio-Rad Laboratories is a source from which this investigation can be modified. Using pGLO plasmid to transform bacteria, students observe the expression of green fluorescent protein.
Rapoza, M., and H. Kruezer, Transformations: A Teacher’s Manual, publication from Carolina Biological Supply Company, Burlington, NC, 2004. http://www.carolina.com This resource, developed in cooperation with the Dolan DNA Learning Center of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, provides extensive background and procedural information for multiple transformation laboratory exercises. All of the plasmids described in the resource contain the gene for ampicillin resistance, and all of the experimental procedures use ampicillin to select transformed cells. Several of the plasmids contain an additional marker gene that causes the transformed cell to be colored, including pVIB, pGREEN, and pBLU.
■ ■ Resources■for■Extensions■of■Investigation
Plasmid isolation and purification are fairly simple processes that students might want to try. Chemicals, bacterial strains, culture media, and other supplies can be purchased from several commercial companies, including Carolina Biological ( http://www. carolina.com ) and Bio-Rad ( http://explorer.bio-rad.com ). Students can isolate specific plasmids of your choice and use them to transform bacteria that do not naturally contain the plasmid(s). Using the skills and knowledge obtained from this investigation, students can design an experiment to investigate whether or not their transformation was successful.
Big
Idea
Investigation 8 S
Genetics and Information Transfer^3
investigation 8
BioteCHnoLogY:
BaCteRiaL
tRansFoRMation*
How can we use genetic engineering techniques to manipulate heritable information?
■ ■ BACKGROUND
Are genetically modified foods safe? There is ongoing debate about whether it is safe to eat fruit and vegetables that are genetically modified to contain toxins that ward off pests. For instance, biotechnologists have succeeded in inserting a gene (Bt) from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the corn genome. When expressed, the Bt toxin kills caterpillars and controls earworms that damage corn, but is the corn safe for human consumption? Genetic information passed from parent to offspring via DNA provides for continuity of life. In order for information in DNA to direct cellular activities, it must be transcribed into RNA. Some of the RNAs are used immediately for ribosomes or to control other cellular processes. Other RNAs are translated into proteins that have important roles in determining metabolism and development, i.e., cellular activities and phenotypes (traits). When the DNA of a cell changes, the RNAs and proteins they produce often change, which in turn changes how that cell functions. DNA inside a cell can change several ways. It can be mutated, either spontaneously or after the DNA replication machinery makes an error. Biotechnologists may cause an intentional mutation in a cell’s own DNA as a way to change how that cell behaves. The most powerful tool biotechnologists have, though, is the ability to transfer DNA from one organism to another and make it function there. With this tool, they can make cells produce novel protein products the cells did not make previously. Examples of this powerful tool are all around us. Insulin that people take to control their blood sugar levels is often made from engineered bacteria. Some vaccines, as well as enzymes used for manufacturing denim jeans, are also made using engineered cells. In the near future, engineered bacteria and other cells being developed could help clean up spilled oil or chemicals, produce fuel for cars and trucks, and even store excess carbon dioxide to help slow global climate change. Can you think of other possible applications of genetic engineering? However, biotechnology and human manipulation of DNA raise several ethical, social, and medical issues, such as the safety of genetically modified foods. Can you think of other issues to consider?
- Transitioned from the AP Biology Lab Manual (2001)
S98■ Investigation 8
This biotechnology depends on plasmids, small circles of DNA that were found first in bacteria. Plasmids allow molecular biologists to manipulate genetic information in a laboratory setting to understand more fully how DNA operates. Plasmids also let us move DNA from one bacterium to another easily. In this investigation, you will learn how to transform Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria with DNA it has not possessed before so that it expresses new genetic information. Bacterial cells that are able to take up exogenous (external) genetic material are said to be “competent” and are capable of being transformed. You also will calculate transformation efficiency to find out how well the E. coli took up the “foreign” DNA. Using these techniques, you will have the opportunity to explore the field of biotechnology further. You might want to explore the following questions:
- What causes mutations in bacteria? Can mutations affect plasmids? - What is the function of plasmids in bacteria? - Do cells take up more plasmids in some conditions and less in others?
By learning and applying these fundamental skills, you will acquire the tools to conduct more sophisticated biotechnology investigations, including designing your own experiments to manipulate DNA. This investigation also provides you with the opportunity to review, connect, and apply concepts that you have studied previously, including cell structure of bacteria; structure and function of cell membranes, enzymes, and DNA and RNA; transcription and translation; the operon model of the regulation of gene expression; evolution and natural selection; and interactions between organisms and their environment. Interspersed within each investigation are supplemental activities designed to keep you on track and to provide opportunities for you to take a deeper dive into the concepts. Your teacher may assign these activities for homework or ask that you do them as you work through each investigation.
■ ■ Learning■Objectives
- To demonstrate the universality of DNA and its expression - To explore the concept of phenotype expression in organisms - To explore how genetic information can be transferred from one organism to another - To investigate how horizontal gene transfer is a mechanism by which genetic variation is increased in organisms - To explore the relationship between environmental factors and gene expression - To investigate the connection between the regulation of gene expression and observed differences between individuals in a population of organisms
