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Advanced Pathophysiology | ACCURATE AND
VERIFIED FOR GUARANTEED PASS |
GUARANTEED PASS| LATEST UPDATE|2024-
2025 15 0+ QUESTIONS
Third-order neurons carry information to the
- ANSWER sensory cortex and reticular and limbic systems for pain processing and interpretation. Efferent pathways from the PAG are responsible for modulation or inhibition of afferent pain signals.
- ANSWER The thalamus cortex, and postcentral gyrus perceive, describe, and localize: - ANSWER Pain The reticular formation and limbic system control the
- ANSWER emotional and affective response to pain. Pain threshold is the point at which pain is perceived. Pain threshold does not vary significantly among people or within the same person over time.
- ANSWER Pain tolerance is the duration of time or the intensity of pain that an individual will ensure before initiating overt pain response.
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Tolerance varies widely among individuals and in the same individual over time and in the same individual over time. - ANSWER Descending inhibitory or facilitatory pathways facilitate pain. - ANSWER Segmental inhibition is the peripheral stimulation of nociceptors by touch nuclei, and neurotransmitter inhibit or vibration or pressure resulting in closure of the spinal cord pain gate. - ANSWER The higher brain centers also can
- ANSWER influence painful stimuli (heterosegmental control of nociception) as well as inhibition from the caudal medulla (diffuse noxious inhibitory controls). Thus pain can be modulated with:
- ANSWER Stimulation from the periphery or by descending impulses from the brain Cognitive expectation can attenuate or intensify pain and this is known as the: - ANSWER Placebo and nocebo effects. Pain neurotransmitters can be classified as inflammatory excitatory, and inhibitory modulators of pain.
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Visceral pain is from
- ANSWER internal organs and is transmitted by sympathetic afferents and is poorly localized. Referred pain usually arises from the viscera and terminates
- ANSWER in an area of the spinal cord that is conjoined with fibers originating in the skin and other areas and thereby produces the perception of pain at the referred site. that is conjoined with fibers originating in the skin and other areas and thereby produces
- ANSWER the perception of pain at the referred site.
- ANSWER Physiologic responses to acute pain include
- ANSWER increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure; pallor or flushing; dilated pupils; and diaphoresis. Blood glucose level is elevated; gastric secretion and motility are decreased; and blood flow to the viscera and skin is decreased. Chronic pain generally lasts
- ANSWER at least 3 months and may be persistent. for example, low back pain myofascial pain syndromes, chronic postoperative pain, and chronic pain associated with cancer.
Neuropathic pain is usually
- ANSWER chronic. abnormal peripheral and central pain processing. Types of neuropathic pain include
- ANSWER results from nerve trauma or disease, and leads to deafferentation pain sympathetically maintained pain, central poststroke pain, phantom limb pain and complex regional pain syndrome. Newborns and young children have the anatomic and functional ability to perceive pain.
- ANSWER Repeated pain experienced by infants may have prolonged effects on:
- ANSWER brain neurodevelopment and motor and cognitive function. Older individuals may or may not have an increased pain threshold. - ANSWER In all age groups
- ANSWER women appear to be more sensitive to pain than are men. Pain in older adults is influenced by
- ANSWER liver and renal function, including alterations in the metabolism of drugs and metabolites.
Infants and older adults require special attention to - ANSWER maintenance of body temperature. Because of their greater body surface area to mass ratio and decreased subcutaneous fat infants - ANSWER do not conserve heat well. Older individuals have poor responses to - ANSWER environmental temperature extremes as a result of slowed blood circulation structural and functional changes in skin and an overall decrease in heat-producing activities. Fever is triggered by the release of pyrogens from leukocytes and other cells involved in - ANSWER the immune response (endogenous pyrogens) and bacteria (exogenous pyrogens). Fever is both a - ANSWER symptom of a disease and a normal immunologic mechanism. Fever involves resetting the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher level. - ANSWER When a fever breaks - ANSWER the set point is returned to normal. Fever production aids responses to infectious processes. - ANSWER Higher temperatures kill many microorganisms and decrease - ANSWER serum levels of iron zinc, and copper that are needed for bacterial replication. Endogenous cryogens diminish and control the febrile response. - ANSWER
Hyperthermia (marked warming of core temperature) can produce - ANSWER nerve damage, coagulation of cell proteins and death. Therapeutic hyperthermia is used in the treatment - ANSWER of infection to treat cancer. Forms of accidental hyperthermia include - ANSWER heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and malignant hyperthermia. Heat stroke and malignant hyperthermia are: - ANSWER potentially lethal developments. Hypothermia (marked cooling of core temperature) - ANSWER slows the rate of chemical reaction (tissue metabolism), increases the viscosity of the blood, slows blood flow through the microcirculation, facilitates blood coagulation, and stimulates profound vasoconstriction. Hypothermia may be accidental or therapeutic and used to reduce metabolic needs and hemorrhagic shock - ANSWER for neuroprotection. Temperature regulation can be disrupted by central nervous system - ANSWER trauma, bodily injury, major surgery, and thermal burns. Sleep may be divided into REM and NREM stages - ANSWER each of which has its own series of stages.
Common dyssomnias include insomnia - ANSWER RLS, OSAS, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, and circadian rhythm disorder. Common parasomnias include - ANSWER arousal disorders,sleep-wake transition disorder, and disorders associated with REM sleep. The sensation of touch involves the fusion of several qualities - ANSWER including modality, intensity location, and duration of the sensory stimulus. Receptors sensitive to touch are present in the skin - ANSWER these include Meissner and Pacinian corpuscles and Merkel disks and Ruffini endings. The sensory response is conducted to - ANSWER he brain through the dorsal column and anterior spinothalamic tract. Abnormal tactile perception may be caused by alterations at any level of the nervous system - ANSWER from the receptor to the cerebral cortex. Proprioception - ANSWER is the perception of the position and location of the body and its parts. Proprioceptors are located in the inner ear - ANSWER inner ear, joints, and ligaments. Proprioceptive stimuli are necessary for: - ANSWER for balance, coordinated movement, and grading of muscular contraction.
Disorders of proprioception can be caused by alterations at any level of the nervous system. - ANSWER Two common causes of proprioceptive dysfunction are: - ANSWER vestibular dysfunction & peripheral neuropathy. The eyelids - ANSWER conjunctivae, and lacrimal apparatus protect the eye. Infections are the most common disorders; they include - ANSWER blepharitis,conjunctivitis, chalazion, and hordeolum. Conjunctivitis can be acute or chronic: - ANSWER bacterial, viral, or allergic. Redness, edema, pain, and lacrimation are common symptoms Trachoma (chlamydial conjunctivitis) is the - ANSWER leading cause of blindness in the world and is associated with poor sanitary conditions. Keratitis is a bacterial or viral infection of the cornea that can lead to - ANSWER corneal ulceration. Photophobia pain, and tearing are common symptoms. The wall of the eye has three layers: - ANSWER sclera, choroid, and retina. What is a protective and complex phenomenon composed of sensory experiences (time, space, intensity), emotion, cognition, and motivation? - ANSWER Pain Portion of the nervous system responsible for sensation and perception of pain can be divided into 3 areas: - ANSWER A: Afferent pathways B interpretive centers
Second-order neurons cross over the cord and ascend primarily in - ANSWER the lateral the spinothalamic tract to projection centers including the thalamus reticular formation, and PAG matter. The retina contains - ANSWER millions of photoreceptors known as rods and cones that receive light through the lens and then convey signals to the optic nerve and subsequently to the visual cortex of the brain. The eye is filled with vitreous and aqueous humor which prevent it from: - ANSWER collapsing. Structural eye changes caused by aging or chronic disease result in decreased visual acuity. - ANSWER The major alterations in ocular movement include: - ANSWER strabismus, nystagmus, and paralysis of the extraocular muscles. Alterations in visual acuity can be caused by - ANSWER amblyopia, scotoma, cataracts, papilledema, macular degeneration, retinal detachment, and glaucoma. Alterations in accommodation develop with - ANSWER increased intraocular pressure, inflammation, and disease of the oculomotor nerve. Presbyopia is loss of accommodation caused by: - ANSWER loss of lens elasticity with aging. Alterations in refraction - ANSWER including myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism, are the most common visual disorders.
Alterations in color vision occur with disorders of the cornea and the inherited trait of color blindness. - ANSWER Trauma or disease of the optic nerve pathways or optic radiations can cause: - ANSWER blindness in the visual fields. Homonymous hemianopsia is caused by damage of - ANSWER one optic tract. The ear is composed of external middle, and inner structures. - ANSWER The external structures are the - ANSWER pinna, auditory canal, and tympanic membrane. The tympanic cavity containing: - ANSWER three bones: malleus, incus, and stapes, oval window, Eustachian tube, and fluid compose the middle ear and transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear. The inner ear includes the bony and membranous labyrinths that transmit sound waves through the cochlea to the division of the eighth cranial nerve - ANSWER vestibulocochlear The semicircular canals and vestibule help maintain balance through the - ANSWER equilibrium receptors Approximately one-third of all people older than 65 years have - ANSWER hearing loss.
Chronic otitis media is persistent or recurrent - ANSWER middle ear infection The perception of flavor is altered if olfaction or taste dysfunctions occur. - ANSWER Sensitivity to odor and taste - ANSWER decreases with aging. Hyposmia is a - ANSWER decrease in the sense of smell. Anosmia is the - ANSWER complete loss of smell Inflammation of the nasal mucosa and trauma or tumors of the olfactory nerve lead to a - ANSWER diminished sense of smell. Hypogeusia is a - ANSWER decrease in taste sensation Loss of ageusia is the: - ANSWER absence of taste
- Parageusia is a - ANSWER perversion of taste in which substances possess an unpleasant flavor. taste buds or trauma to the facial or glossopharyngeal nerves decreases - ANSWER taste sensation a new painless palpable lymph node in the neck accompanied by recent weight loss would be a sign of - ANSWER Hodgkins lymphoma
A mediastinal mass and mediastinal nodes present on xray could be which type of cancer - ANSWER Hodgkin's Lymphoma What is the function of TPA - ANSWER to break up a blood clot and restore blood flow to the brain following a stroke. Promotes fibrinolysis. Iron Deficiency Anemia - ANSWER the presence of small, often hypochromic, red blood cells in a peripheral blood smear and is usually characterized by a low MCV Vitamin deficiency anemia - ANSWER occurs when your body doesn't have enough of the vitamins needed to produce adequate numbers of healthy red blood cells. low B12 (pernicious anemia) Aplastic Anemia - ANSWER stops producing red blood cells - causes viral infections, exposure to toxic chemicals, autoimmune diseases. Hemolytic Anemia - ANSWER Abnormal breakdown of red blood cells - causes sickle cell, artificial heart valve, infection or autoimmune disease Anemia of chronic disease - ANSWER Microcytic anemia with ↓ serum iron, ↓ total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), and normal or ↑ ferritin. Causes - cancer, kidney dx, liver dx, thyroid dx and RA Type of hematologic cancer in pediatric patient with hepatomegaly, splenomegaly and small bruises - ANSWER Acute lymphoblastic leukemia Hemophilia - ANSWER a group of hereditary bleeding disorders in which a blood- clotting factor is missing
Important factors for coagulation cascade - ANSWER fibrinogen, prothrombin, Christmas factor, Stuart-Prower factor, plasma thromboplastin, Hageman factor and stable factor (fibrigin and calcium) What makes B cells become defective with Hodgkins Lympohoma - ANSWER healthy B-cells change into fast-growing cancer cells that don't die. The cancer cells duplicate, eventually overwhelming healthy cells. The cancer cells can also spread to other areas of your body including the bone marrow, spleen or other organs. Errors in immunoglobulin gene arrangement result in defective lymphocytes Where does lymphoma begin - ANSWER B cells What to expect when an infant/child is diagnosed with sickle cell anemia - ANSWER paleness, weakness or extreme tiredness, an enlarged spleen, and belly pain - Painful swelling of fingers and toes which is the definition of a condition called "dactylitis. How and for how long is folic acid stored in your body - ANSWER Folate dissolves in water, which means your body is unable to store it for long periods of time. Your body's store of folate is usually enough to last 4 months What is von Willebrand factor directly involved with? - ANSWER platelet adhesion and aggregation - helps the platelets stick together, like glue, to form a clot at the site of injury and stop the bleeding. Chronic myelogenous leukemia is associated with which type of chromosomal abnormality - ANSWER Philadelphia chromosome: created during translocation on chromosome 9 and chromosome 22 resulting in BCR-ABL fusion gene
Normal red blood cell nuclear maturation and DNA synthesis pathway need the following coenzymes - ANSWER Both folate and vitamin B12. Difference between Hodgkin's and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma - ANSWER The primary difference between Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma is the type of lymphocyte that is affected. Hodgkin lymphoma is marked by the presence of Reed-Sternberg lymphocytes, which a physician can identify using a microscope. In non-Hodgkin lymphoma, these cells are not present. Hodgkin lymphoma: occurs in adults primarily in their 20-40s (equal both genders) Second occurrence peak in males after 55 years old Accounts for 10 percent of all lymphomas Associated with Reed-Sternberg cells Typically starts in lymph nodes of upper body (chest or upper arms) Can then spread to other lymph nodes Non-Hodgkin lymphoma: Can start in any age, more common in middle aged to older adults 5% of childhood cancers Accounts for 90 percent of all lymphomas Worse prognosis than HL Common feature of all forms of Leukemia - ANSWER an unregulated proliferation of malignant leukocytes in the bone marrow causing overcrowding and abnormal hematopoiesis Precipitating factors for sickle cell - ANSWER Fever, dehydration and stress - high intensity exercise or high altitude where increase in oxygen demand is present. Electrically dead area finding on a 12 lead EKG - ANSWER Pathological Q waves are wider and deeper than normal Q waves and they are a reflection of an area of tissue that is electrically dead. (MI) Looks like a big checkmark Sudden cardiac death is characterized most likely as - ANSWER Hypertrophic Cariomyopathy
