Download Cellular Structure and Function and more Exams Advanced Education in PDF only on Docsity!
TEAS NURSING SCHOOL ENTRANCE EXAM
resolute - determined (think of new years resolutions that you are determined to fufill) germinate - sprout, seed, bud congeal - solidify, coagulate, harden rudimentary - basic, opposite of advanced dandy - someone who is elegant in dress or has manners whimsical - playful, opposite of grim or grave penitent - person who tends to regret querulous - habitually whining person, tends to complain or argue over minor details virtuouso - having great skill, opposite of incompetent mutable - prone to change (think of a mutation or an abnormal change) antediluvial - before a flood diluvial - having to do with a flood legislate - mandate throught the creation of laws prattle - talk aimlessly or idly erroneous - mistake (err-think error) ominous - predicts or foreshadows disaster unguent - ointment used to soothe or heal, opposite of irritant orator - public speaker who needs to be able to articulate exculpate - clear from blame ravenous - extremely hungry supplicant - humble begger has humility maven - expert, has expertise
insidious - something that spreads harmfully in a subtle or stealthy manner cede - yield, give up, transfer title to someone else eschew - forbid, shun, abatain from, avoid it proscribe - forbid or prohibit as harmful percent increase formula - (change/original number) x 100% circumfrence of a circle formula - 2 x pie x radius OR diameter x pie commensal relationship - form of a symbiotic relationship, two organisms live in close association with each other. One benefits while the other is neither harms or benefites. +/0 relationship polysome - cluster of ribosomes notochord - a semi-rigid rod in the dorsal part of all chordates, this remains as a semi- rigid chord, although in highrt chordates it is seen only in the embryo and as a vestigial organ. -a flexible material made out of similar material to cartilage. If a species has notochord it is by definition it is a chordate. Ex: fish, birds, mammals enzymes - proteins, typically work best at pH7. electron transport chain - directly produces the pH gradient by pumping protons out of the mitochondrial matrix. the proton gradient is used to make ATP. closed circuit - has continuity and allows current to flow in it as you go from left to right across a period, what happens to electrons - electrons are added one at a time, the electrons of the outermost shell experience an increasing amount of nuclear attraction becoming closer and more tightly bound to the nucleus. voltage drop - happens as current passes through a resistance, represents an energy loss, this energy is usually dissipated in the form of heat. what temperature does water at sea level boil - 212F, 100C, 373K logy - lethargic, lacking in energy or vitality, mental and physical slowness gametes - sex cells (sperm and egg), humans have 23 chromosomes in each sex cell (made of 22 autosomes), 1n, haploid because they have half as many as regular human
query - question disinterested - impartial, unbiased pathetic - sad clandestine - secret auspicious - favorable, hopeful, shadows sucess callow - immature or unsophisticated rankle - irk, annoy, irritate garrulous - talkative tactiturn - quiet magnanimous - greedy loquacious - talkative miserly - thrifty tome - more elegant work for book quarrelsome - argumentous vivacious - energetic bragart - someone who lacks modesty bene- - good somn- - sleep ver- - truth (think of verdad) facilitate - Make easier, help the progress of explicate - (v.) to make plain or clear, explain; to interpret laurels - honor transient - Temporary
feign - To pretend, or fake conspicious - easily seen, obvious ghastly - awful acute - Sharp, small aloof - Distant physically or emotionally; reserved; indifferent torrid - Very hot, parching, burning; passionate, hot and steamy abdicate - give up 12 inches = _________feet - 1 foot 1 kilometer = ____________meters - 1,000 (meters is in the name) Root deci - 10 Root centi - 100 Root mili - 1, 1 meter=_______________decimeters - 10 10 decimeters= _____________ centimeters - 100 100 centimeters = ________________ millimeters - 1, 1 pound= _________ ounces - 16 1 kg = ________ grams - 1, 1 cup= ___________ounces - 8 2 cups= ___________ pints - 1 1 quart= __________________ pints - 2 4 cups= ______________ quarts - 1 1 gallon= _________________ pints - 4 1 kiloliter = _______________liters - 1,
protein - provide cells with the ability to grow, reproduce, and survive Ex: insulin, glucagon, hemoglobin, collagen, actin, myosin, immunoglobulins, enzymes (amylase, lipase, ATPase) common triangle side ratios - -3-4-5 (30-40-50 is x10 12-16-20 is x4 1.5-2-2.5 is half the size) -5-12- -45 degrees-45 degrees- 90 degrees (side lengths are 1, 1, and √2 is the hypotenuse) -30 degrees-60 degrees-90 degrees for angles and side lengths are 1, 2, and 3√ (base is 1 hypotenuse is 3 solve for a height of 3√ ) central dogma is - a basic outline of how information flows within living organisms
- DNA stores an organisms genetic material. Genes encode physical traits/phenotype
- DNA is replicated from existing DNA to produce new genomes
- RNA is produced when a gene segment of DNA is read by RNA. Through the process of transcription RNA recieves a complementary gene sequence
- The gene sequence carried by RNA is read and appropiated into a sequence of amino acids which form protein. This process of protein synthesis is called translation mRNA - encodes gene messages that are to be decoded during protein synthesis to form proteins rRNA - part of the structure of ribosomes and is involved in translation (protein synthesis) tRNA - plays a role in protein synthesis DNA vs. RNA - DNA: double stranded, made up of deoxyribose, has thymine instead of uracil (A-T C-G) RNA: single stranded, made up of ribose, has uracil instead of thymine (A-U C-G) cell theory - unifies all biology at the cellular level. all living things are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in all living things, cells arise only from pre-exisiting cells eukaryotic properties - has a nucleus which encloses DNA, has intracellular organelles, includes protists, animals, plants and fungi, has ribosomes, plants have a cell wall, animals do not have a cell wall, has a cell membrane, multicellular prokaryotic properties - single celled, older, includes archae and bacteria, doesnt have a nucleus DNA is free floating, no membrane bound organelles, has ribosomes, has a cell wall, has a cell membrane, unicellular plasma membrane - aka cell membrane, important component of cellular structure, is selectively permeable, regulates the passage of materials into and out of the cell, phospholipid heads are hydrophillic, fatty acids tails are hydrophobic
histones - proteins in a cell which are involved in packing DNA and regulating access to genes chromatin - in a cell becomes condensed through several processes leading to the development of chromosomes which arwe the highest level of structure in the genome ribosomes - not membrane bound organelles, they are large complex structures that are the sites of protein production and are synthezised by the nucleoulus. Some are free floating in the cytoplasm some line the outer membrane of the ER. Endoplasmic Reticulum - (ER) rough-with ribosomes smooth- without ribosomes Involved in the transport of proteins in cells Smooth- lipid synthesis Rough- protein synthesis golgi apparatus - stack of membrane enclosed sacks USPS (transports and modifies proteins and ships them to their next stop) Particularly active in the distribution of newly synthesized material to the cell surface lysosomes - garbage disposal, digests/gets rid of structures that are worn out or not in use, they also renew the cell by breaking down an old material and releasing its molecular building blocks into the cytosol for reuse. Microbodies - two types are perioxisomes and glyoxysomes which are involved in carrying out metabolic reactions perioxisomes - type of microbody, break down fats into small molecules to be used for fuel Ex: used in the liver to detoxify compunds such as alcohol, to make them less harmful to the body glyoxysomes - type of microbody, used by seedlings to convert fats to sugars until they are mature enough to use photosynthesis to produce their own supply of sugars vacuoles - storage units mitochondria - site of aerobic respiration which supplies the cell with energy. has convolutions called cristae (folds) whcih hold proteins used in the electron transport chain, make ATP *unique because they are semiautonomous, they are independent for the most part and are advanced compared to some of the other membrane bound organelles chloroplasts - found only in plants and algae, site where photosynthesis transpires
what are things that living organisms have to maintain a constant interior environment of? - water volume, salt concentration, appropiate levels of O2, CO2, toxic metabolic waste products, essential nutrients. -Organisms must respond to changes in the environment to avoid harm -Single celled prokaryotes/protists have simple ways of maintaining homeostasis -Humans /multi-cellular organisms have more complex ways of maintaining homeostasis. Cells create tissues and tissues make up organs. Organs are part of organ systems which are how we maintain a constant homeostasis in our bodies via digestion, respiration, circulation, immune reactions, excretion, reproduction, etc. reproduction - an essential function for all living things to be able to do in order to allow a species to continue. Eukaryotes reproduce sexually or asexually via meiosis or mitosis. Prokaryotes use binary fission. Meiosis - specialized form of cell division involved in sexual reproduction that produces male and female gametes (sperm and ova) Meiotic cell division creates cell with a single copy of the genome in preparation for sexual reproduction. During reproduction, gametes join to create a new organmism with two copies of the genome one from each parent mitoisis - a process in which cell divide to produce two daughter cells with the dame genomic complement as the parent cell. In the case of humans there are two copies of the genome in each cell. Mitotic cell division can be a means of asexual reproduction or the growth, development, and replacement of tissues. prokaryotes and binary fission - aka cell division. They have no organelles only one chromosome in a singular long singular DNA strand. With two copies of the genome attached to the membrane after DNA replication, the DNAs are drawn apart from each other as the cell grows in size and adds more membrane between the DNAs. When the cell grows, the cell wall and membrane close off to create two independent cells. Their simplicity assists in how rapidly they replicate. It can be as fast as once every 30 minutes under ideal conditions. They do not reproduce sexually but can exchange genetic material with each other through a process called conjugation. eukaryotes and mitosis - Eukaryotes use mitosis to divide into two new daughter cells with the same genome as the parent cell. In the cell cycle, cells grow and divide, creating new cells and is linked to the growth and differentiation of tissues. Failure to control the cell cycle properly can result in uncontrolled progression through the cell cycle which can lead to cancer. Cancer cells contain mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. Stages: 1-3: G1-S-G2 Interphase 4: Mitosis (involves the actual division of the cell, can be further broken down into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase) The cell completes its split into daughter cells through the process of cytokinesis.
asexual reproduction - any method of producing new organisms in which fusion of nuclei from two individuals (fertilization) does not take place. Only one parent organism is invloved. Organisms form daughter cells through mitotic cell divion and are genetically identical clones of their parents. This process serves primarily as a mechanism for perpetuating primitive organisms and plants, allows more rapid population growth but does not create the genetic diversity that sexual reproduction does. oogenesis - ovum developes spermatogenesis - meiotic development of sperm in males. Sperm production occurs throughout adult life in males and is continuous without a significant pause. In the testes, diploid germ cells divide mitotically to create primary spermatocytes which continuously undergo meiosis to form four haploid spermatids from each primary spermatocyte. The four spermatids must mature further to develop the characteristics help by mature sperm: a head containing DNA and a tail for motility. A specialized sac at the tip of the sperm called acrosome is full of enzymes that allow the sperm to break through the protective layers around the egg. (one birth control strategy has been to inhibit these enzymes so that sperm cannot reach the egg) The testes are located outside the abdominal cavity because they must remain 2-4 degrees cooler than the rest of the body to ensure proper development of sperm. peristalsis - a wave-like muscular action conduction by smooth muscle that lines the gut the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rings of muscle encircling the gut contract which moves food through the gut. passageway of digestive tract - tongue, oral cavity, pharyx, trachea, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, large intestine (end is cecum and appendix), rectum, anus chemical digestion - begins in the mouth,, salivary glands produce salive which lubricates food and begins starch digestion, saliva contains salivary amylase and enzyme that breaks the complex starch polysacchride into maltose. As food leaved the mouth the esophagus conducts it to the stomach by means of peristaltic waved of smooth-muscle contraction. male reproductive system - sperm is produced in the testes which are gonads from the outpocketing of the abdominal wall called the scrotum. The sperm develop in a series of coiled tubes within the tests called seminiferous tubules. Sertoli cells in the tubules support the sperm and Leydig cells make testosterone that support male secondary sex characteristics. Vas deferens carries sperm to to urethra which passes through the penis. During ejaculation, the prostate gland and seminal vesicles along the path add secretions to the sperm that carry and provide nutrients for the sperm as part of semen. Leydig cells in the testis secrete testosterone beginning in puberty. Testosterone and
gametes. When the male gamete (sperm) and the female gamete (egg) join a zygote is formed that developes into a new organism genetically distinct from both its parents. The zygote is the diploid single-celled offspring, formed from the union of haploid gametes. Does not create new alleles (different forms of a gene) only mutations can do that. Sexual reproduction increases diversity in populations by creating new combinations of alleles in offspring and therefore new combinations of traits. Genetic diversity allows a population of organisms to adapt and survive in the face of a dynamic and unperdictable environment. Diversity occurs during meiotic gamete production and through the randoom matching of gametes to make unique individuals. embryonic development - The first step in development is fertilization. If sperm are present in the oviduct during ovulation and a sperm succeeds in encountering the ovum, then fertilization can occur, forming a zygote, a single diploid cell. During fertilization, the egg nucleus (containing the haploid number, or n chromosomes) unites with the sperm nucleus (containing n chromosomes). This union produces a zygote of the original diploid or 2n chromosome number. In this way, the normal somatic number (2n) of chromosomes in a diploid cell is restored, and the cell has two homolougous copies of each chromosome. Everything else in development up to adulthood consists of mitotic divisions. If there are two or more eggs released bu the ovaries, more than one can be fertilized. The result of several eggs being feritilized is multiple gestation, producing fraternal twins, triplets, quadruplets,etc. which are produced when two or more separate sperm fertilize two or more eggs. flow of blood through the heart - the right ventricle pumps deoxygentated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. Oxygentated blood returns through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium. From there it passes to the left ventricle and is pumped through the aorta and arteries to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to renew the oxygen supply. Valves in the chambers of the heart keep blood from moving backward. There are two seperate circulatory systems: one for the lungs, called pulmonary circulation, and systemic circulation for the rest of the body. A four-chambered heart splits the blood that is pumped through the lungs and blood that travels through the rest of the body which allows much greater pressure on the circulatory system than is possible with a two- chambered heart. The transmission and spreading of the signal is highly controlled to coordinate the beating of the chambers. During each cardiac cycle the signal to contract initiates on its own in a special part of the heart called the sinoatrial node, or pacemaker region. Cells from this region fire impulses in regular intervals all on their own, without stimulation from the nervous system. Once the signals start, they spread through both atria, which then contract, forcing blood into the ventricles. The signal then passes into the ventricles and spreads throughout their walls, causing the ventricles to contract and move blood into the major arteries. Ventricular contraction occurs during the systole part of the cardiac cycle and the atria contract during the diastole part of the cardiac cycle. The signal that causes the beatinf of the heart originates spontaneously within the heart without nervous stimulationm but the heart rate can be altered by nervous stimulation. The most important nervous stimulation of the heart is ind
lymph nodes - -Bean-shaped filters that cluster along the lymphatic vessels of the body. They function as a cleanser of lymph as wells as a site of T and B cell activation. -responsible for filtering lymph to rid it of foreign particles, maintaining the proper balance of fluids. erythrocytes - all blood cells (platelets, white blood cells) red blood cells - most abundant cells present in blood, primary function is to transport O2, formed in bone marrow, mature RBC lose their nuclei and become biconclave discs. their life span is about 4 months in the circulatory system and then they go to the spleen for destruction (they have no nucleus so they cannot make new proteins to repair themselves. therefore they have to be destroyed). Hemoglobin is a protein which carries the oxygen for RBCs. In the lungs hemoglobin readily picks up oxygen. lymphocytes - white blood cells plasma - composed of water, salt, protein, calcium, glucose, hormones, lipids, and other soluble factors urine - the body regulates blood volume and salt content through water intake and through excretion of urine gases/substances in the blood - O2 is dissolved in blood and is transported to hemoglobin in all red blood cells. CO2 is converted to carbonic acid in the blood. Glucose is dissolved for cells to use as energy as needed. Hormones are transported through the blood then they go to tissues where they exert their actions. The protein component of plasma consists of antibodies for immune responses, fibrinogen for clotting, and serum albumin. The protein component of bloof helps draw water into blood in the capillaries, preventing loss of fluid from the blood into the tissues which would cause swelling. phagocytes - engulf bacteria with amoeboid motion white blood cells include - phagocytes and lymphocytes lymphocytes include - B cells. T cells B cells - produce antibodies, also produce memory cells that allow it to remain specific to an antigen for many years ready to respond if the body is introduced to the same antigen T cells - coordinate immune responses antigens and pathogen have in common - they both cause disease
endocrine vs. exocrine - -both can be found in the same organ endocrine-secrete hormones directly into the blood stream exocrine-released through ducts into a body compartment Ex: pancreas secretes digestive ensymes into the small intestine through the pancreatic duct (insulin and glucagon) pituitary gland - secretes several hormones: growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, prolatin, follicle stimulating hormone, ADH, oxytocin, and leuitinizing hormone -growth hormone: growth in a variety of tissues -thyroid-stimulating hormone: stimulate thyroid to secrete thyroxine -adrenocorticotrophic hormone: stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids -prolactin: milk production -follicle stimulating hormone: maturation of seminiferous tubercles in males and follicles in the ovaries of woman -luteinizing hormone: induces interstitial cells in the testis to mature to secrete testosterone, and in females causes secretion of estrogen and progesterone -anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): acts on the kidney to prevent water loss during dehydration aka vasopressin -oxytocin: acts on the uterus during birth to cause uterine contractions thyroxine - produced by the thyroid gland, accelerates oxidative metabolism throughout the body Abnormal deficiency/Hypothryroidism= goiter (swelling of the neck), decreased heart rate, lethargy, obesity, decreased mental alertness Hyperthyroidism= perfuse perspiration, high body temperature, increased basal metabolic rate, high BP, loss of weight, irritability parathyroid gland - regulates calcium and phosphate balance in blood, bones, and other tissues. increased levels of parathyroid hormone increases bone formation, plasma calcium must be maintained at a constant level for the function of muscles and neurons Nucleus includes - Protons and neutrons. The electrons are in the outer nucleus pancreas - exocrine and endocrine functions exocrine functions- secretes enzymes through ducts into the small intestine
endocrine functions- insulin decreases glucose levels, glucagon increases insulin levels adrenal glands - located on top of the kidneys, responds to stress by secreting corticosteroids (can be used an anti-inflammant but can alter fat metabolism and suppress the immune system) It produces androgens (secondary sex hormones), epinephrine and norepinephrine (increase and decrease of heart beat). action potentials - transmit electrochemical signals from neurons synpatic cleft - gap between the neuron and the target cell somatic motor nervous system - voluntary movement. motor neurons release the neurotransmitter (Ach) Acetylcholine onto Ach receptors on skeletal muscle. vs. autonomic which is automatic movement that we can't control. autonomic is split into sympathetic (flight or fight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest). sympathetic autonomic nervous system - (flight or fight) automatic we can't control it: increased heart rate, dilation of pupils, bronchodilation, and vasoconstriction parasympathetic autonomic nervous system - rest and digest automatic response: pupil constriction, decreased heart rate, bronchoconstriction, and vasodilation negative feedback system - usual means of maintaining homeostasis, body senses an internal change and activates mechanisms that reverse that change Ex: body temp regulation hypothalmus - hunger, thirst, pain, temp regulation, water balance, visceral and homestatic functions are controlled by this center cerebellum - balance and coordination medulla oblongata - controls vital function sight - the eye detects light energy and transmits information about intensity, color and shape to the brain. the transparent cornea at the front of the eye bends and focuses light rays. these rays then travel through an opening called the pupil, whose diameter is controlled by the pigmented iris. the iris responds to the intensity of light in the surroundings (light makes the pupil constrict). light continues through the lens which is suspended behind the pupil. the lens focuses the image onto the retina which contains photoreceptors that transduce light into action potentials. (the image on the retina is actually upside down but revision and interpretation in the cerebral cortex result in the perception of the image right-side up) the image from both eyes is intergrated into the cortex to produce binocular vision with depth perception that allows us to throw, catch and drive with improved ability. the shape of the lens is changed to focus images from nearby or far objects. to see nearby objects, the muscles attached to the lens are relaxed and the lens rounds up focusing light more sharply. if the shape of the eye is
body. concentration of electrolytes is controlled by a variety of hormones most of which are manufactured in the kidney and adrenal glands. key electrolytes: -sodium: regulates the amount of water in the body, critical for production of electrical signals -potassium: normal cell function (regulation of heartbeat and function of muscles) -chloride: maintains a normal balance of body fluids -bicarbonate: maintains normal levels of acidity (pH) -magnesium: involved in metabolic/enzyme-regulated activites (relaxation of smooth muscles) plants and their important organs - phloem: a part of the plant tissue that transport nutrients from the leaves to the rest of the plant, the nutrient is commonly called sap, phloem cells are tube-shaped gorund tissue: storage and support cellulose: component of a cell wall phyla - within the plant kingdom, a major distinction is whether or not the plant has vascular tissue (important for support of plants, protection against gravity, and their ability to survive dry conditions) for transport of fluids. ~nontracheophytes: plants without vascular tissue (Ex: mosses) ~tracheophytes: plants with vascular tissue (Ex: rest of plants... pines, ferns, flowering plants, etc.) vegetative propagation - asexul reproduction in plants, increased speed of reporduction, lack of genetic variation stamen - flower's male organ, thin-stalk-like filament with a sac at the top this structure is called an anther (produces haploid spores which develop into pollen) pistil - flower's female organ. consists of three parts stigma (sticky top part of the flower, catches pollen), style (tube-like structure connecting the stigma to the ovary at the base if the pistil, permits the sperm to reach the ovules), and ovary (enlarged base of the pistil, which is often the fruit of the plant, contains one or more ovule which contains the monoploid egg nucleus) *petals surround and protect the pistil, they attract insects with their odors and colors. they are essential for cross-pollination (transfer if pollen from one flower to the stigma of another) pollination of plants - pollen grains develop by the sporophyte (Ex: rose bush). pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma. agents of cross-pollination include insects, wind, and water. the flower's reproduction organ is brightly colored and fragrant to attract insects and birds, which help to pread male gametophytes, pollen being carried directly from plant to plant is more efficient than relying on the wind, it also helps to prevent self-pollination, which does not create diversity. When the pollen grain reaches the stigma (pollination), it releases an enzyme that enable it to absorb and utilize both food and water from the stigma, as well as to germinate a pollen tube, the
pollen tube is what remains of the gametophyte, the pollen's enzymes proceed to digest a path down the pistil to the ovary, within the pollen tube are the haploid tube nucleus and two sperm nuclei, female gametophytes develop in the ovule from one of four spores, this embryo sac contains nuclei, including the two polar (endosperm) nuclei and an egg nucleus, the gametes involved in fertilization are nuclei, not complete cells, the sperm nucleus of the male gametophyte (pollen tube) enters the female gametophyte (embryo sac) and double fertilization occurs, one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to form the diploid zygote, which develops into the embryo, the other perm nucleus fuses with the two polat bodies to form the endosperm (triploid or 3n). the endosperm provides food for the embryonic plant. classical genetics - study of patterns and mechanisms in the transmission of inherited traits from one generation to another (requires an understanding of meiosis-the mechanism of gamete formation) foundations were laid by Gregor Mendel (Mendelian Genetics) medelian genetics - developed the basic principles of genetics, gregor mendel's work was rediscovered by thomas h. morgan who tied it to the chromosome theory, he describes sex-linked genes, and linked particular traits to regions of particular traits to specific chromosome regions by studying fruit flies (chromosomes are banded and bands coincide with gene locations) basic rules for gene transmission and expression - -genes are elements of DNA that are responsible for observed traits -in eukaryotes, genes are found in large, linear chromosomes, and each chromosome is a very long continuous DNA double helix -humans have 23 different chromosomes with two copies of each chromosome in most cells -each chromosome contains a specific sequence and arrangement of genes -each gene has a specific location on a chromosome -diploid organisms have two copies of each chromosome and therefore two copies of each gene (except for the X and Y chromosomes in males) -the two copies of each gene can have a different sequence in an organism and a gene can have several different sequences in a population, these different versions are called alleles -the type of alelles an organism has/genetic composition= genotype -appearance and physical expression of genes in a organism has=phenotype -the types alleles include dominant (expressed regardless of the second allele) and recessive (will not be expressed if the other allele the organism carries is a dominant one) alleles. -homozygous individual has two copies (two alleles) of a gene that are identical and a heterozygous individual has two different alelles for a gene. -the phenotype of an idividual is detgermines by the genotype -parents offsrping will always have the same phenotype as their parents because they are all homozygous for the same alelle
