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chapter 15 cardiovascular system, Study notes of Anatomy

ECPI UniversityAnatomy

chapter 15 cardiovascular system

Typology: Study notes

2025/2026

Uploaded on 02/26/2026

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sabrina-fender 🇺🇸

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Chapter 15 Cardiovascular Summary
15.1 General Characteristics of the Cardiovascular System
1. The heart pumps blood to the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
2. The pulmonary circuit delivers oxygen-poor blood to the lungs, where the blood picks up
oxygen and unloads carbon dioxide.
3. The systemic circuit delivers oxygen-rich blood to all body cells and picks up carbon
dioxide to be excreted.
15.2 Structure of the Heart
1. Size and location of the heart
a. The heart is about 14 centimeters long and 9 centimeters wide.
b. It is located in the mediastinum, superior to the diaphragm.
2. Coverings of the heart
a. A layered pericardium encloses the heart.
b. The pericardial cavity is a space between the visceral and parietal layers of the
pericardium.
3. Wall of the heart
a. The wall of the heart has three layers.
b. These layers include an epicardium, a myocardium, and an endocardium.
4. Heart chambers and valves
a. The heart is divided into four chambers—two atria and two ventricles—that
communicate through atrioventricular orifices on each side (left and right).
b. Right chambers and valves
1) The right atrium receives blood from the venae cavae (superior and inferior)
and coronary sinus.
2) The tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve, R. AV valve) guards the
right atrioventricular orifice.
3) The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk (artery).
4) A pulmonary valve (pulmonary semi-lunar valve) guards the base of the
pulmonary trunk.
c. Left chambers and valves
1) The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins.
2) The mitral valve (bicuspid v., L atrioventricular v.) guards the left
atrioventricular orifice.
3) The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta.
4) An aortic valve (aortic semi-lunar valve) guards the base of the aorta.
5. Skeleton of the heart
a. The skeleton of the heart consists of masses of dense connective tissue in the
septum between the ventricles, and fibrous rings that enclose the bases of the
pulmonary trunk and aorta.
b. The fibrous rings provide attachments for valves and muscle cells and prevent the
orifices from excessively dilating during ventricular contractions.
6. Blood flow through the heart
a. Blood low in oxygen (oxygen-poor blood) and high in carbon dioxide enters the right
side of the heart from the venae cavae and coronary sinus and then is pumped into
the pulmonary circulation.
b. After the blood is oxygenated in the lungs and some of its carbon dioxide is
removed, the oxygen-rich blood returns to the left side of the heart through the
pulmonary veins.
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Chapter 15 Cardiovascular Summary

15.1 General Characteristics of the Cardiovascular System

  1. The heart pumps blood to the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
  2. The pulmonary circuit delivers oxygen-poor blood to the lungs, where the blood picks up oxygen and unloads carbon dioxide.
  3. The systemic circuit delivers oxygen-rich blood to all body cells and picks up carbon dioxide to be excreted.

15.2 Structure of the Heart

  1. Size and location of the heart a. The heart is about 14 centimeters long and 9 centimeters wide. b. It is located in the mediastinum, superior to the diaphragm.
  2. Coverings of the heart a. A layered pericardium encloses the heart. b. The pericardial cavity is a space between the visceral and parietal layers of the pericardium.
  3. Wall of the heart a. The wall of the heart has three layers. b. These layers include an epicardium , a myocardium , and an endocardium.
  4. Heart chambers and valves a. The heart is divided into four chambers —two atria and two ventricles —that communicate through atrioventricular orifices on each side (left and right). b. Right chambers and valves 1) The right atrium receives blood from the venae cavae (superior and inferior) and coronary sinus. 2) The tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve, R. AV valve) guards the right atrioventricular orifice. 3) The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk (artery). 4) A pulmonary valve (pulmonary semi-lunar valve) guards the base of the pulmonary trunk. c. Left chambers and valves 1) The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins. 2) The mitral valve (bicuspid v., L atrioventricular v.) guards the left atrioventricular orifice. 3) The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. 4) An aortic valve (aortic semi-lunar valve) guards the base of the aorta.
  5. Skeleton of the heart a. The skeleton of the heart consists of masses of dense connective tissue in the septum between the ventricles, and fibrous rings that enclose the bases of the pulmonary trunk and aorta. b. The fibrous rings provide attachments for valves and muscle cells and prevent the orifices from excessively dilating during ventricular contractions.
  6. Blood flow through the heart a. Blood low in oxygen (oxygen-poor blood) and high in carbon dioxide enters the right side of the heart from the venae cavae and coronary sinus and then is pumped into the pulmonary circulation. b. After the blood is oxygenated in the lungs and some of its carbon dioxide is removed, the oxygen-rich blood returns to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary veins.

c. From the left ventricle, the blood moves into the aorta.

  1. Blood supply to the heart (to the cells that make the heart not to a chamber) a. The coronary arteries (part of the systemic circuit) supply blood to the myocardium. b. Blood is returned to the right atrium through the coronary sinus (posterior).

15.3 Heart Actions

The atria contract (atrial systole) while the ventricles relax (ventricular diastole); the ventricles contract (ventricular systole) while the atria relax (atrial diastole).

  1. Cardiac muscle cells a. Intercalated discs between adjacent cardiac muscle cells have desmosomes that anchor the cells in place and gap junctions that allow these cells to contract as a unit. b. Cardiac muscle cells connect to form a functional syncytium. c. If any part of the syncytium is stimulated, the whole structure contracts as a unit. d. Except for a small region in the floor of the right atrium, the fibrous skeleton separates the atrial syncytium from the ventricular syncytium. 2. Cardiac conduction system a. This system, composed of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, initiates and conducts depolarization waves through the myocardium. b. Impulses from the SA node pass slowly to the AV node ; impulses are conducted rapidly along the AV bundle and Purkinje fibers. c. Muscle cells in the ventricular walls form whorls that squeeze blood out of the contracting ventricles.
  2. Electrocardiogram a. An electrocardiogram ( ECG, EKG ) records electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. b. The pattern contains several waves. 1) The P wave represents atrial depolarization. 2) The QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization (atrial polarization is hidden in the QRS complex).T 3) The T wave represents ventricular repolarization.
  3. Heart sounds

a. Heart sounds can be described as lubb-dupp.

b. Heart sounds are due to the vibrations that the valve movements produce. c. The first part of the sound occurs as AV valves close, and the second part is associated with the closing of pulmonary and aortic valves.

  1. Pressure and volume changes during a cardiac cycle a. Pressure in chambers rises and falls in cycles. b. Changes in pressure open and close the heart valves. c. Volume in chambers increases during diastole and decreases during systole.
  2. Regulation of the cardiac cycle a. Physical exercise, body temperature, and concentration of various ions affect heart rate. b. Branches of parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers innervate the SA and AV nodes. 1) Parasympathetic impulses decrease heart action; sympathetic impulses increase heart action.

c. Venous walls are similar to arterial walls but are thinner and contain less muscle and elastic tissue. d. Many veins contain flap-like valves that open, allowing blood to flow to the heart, but close to prevent flow in the opposite direction.

15.5 Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the force blood exerts against the inner walls of blood vessels.

  1. Arterial blood pressure a. The arterial blood pressure is produced primarily by heart action; it rises and falls with phases of the cardiac cycle. b. Systolic pressure occurs when the ventricles contract; diastolic pressure occurs when the ventricles relax.
  2. Factors that influence arterial blood pressure a. Cardiac output , blood volume , peripheral resistance , and blood viscosity influence arterial blood pressure. b. Arterial pressure increases as cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, or blood viscosity increases.
  3. Control of blood pressure a. Blood pressure is controlled in part by the mechanisms that regulate cardiac output and peripheral resistance. b. Cardiac output depends on the stroke volume (volume of blood discharged from the ventricle with each beat) and on the heart rate. 1) The more blood that enters the heart, the stronger the ventricular contraction, the greater the stroke volume, and the greater the cardiac output. 2) The baroreceptor reflexes involving the cardiac center of the medulla oblongata regulate heart rate. c. Changes in the diameter of arterioles, controlled by the vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata, regulate peripheral resistance.
  4. Venous blood flow a. Venous blood flow is not a direct result of heart action; it depends on skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and venoconstriction. b. Venoconstriction can increase venous pressure and blood flow.
  5. Central venous pressure a. Central venous pressure is the pressure in the right atrium. b. Factors that influence central venous pressure alter the flow of blood into the right atrium. c. Central venous pressure affects pressure in the peripheral veins.

15.6 Paths of Circulation

1. Pulmonary circuit a. The pulmonary circuit consists of vessels that transport oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the alveolar capillaries in the lungs, and vessels that transport oxygen-rich blood back to the left atrium. a. Alveolar capillaries exert less pressure than those of the systemic circuit. b. Tightly joined epithelial cells of alveolar walls prevent most substances from entering the alveoli. c. Osmotic pressure rapidly draws water out of alveoli into the interstitial fluid, so alveoli do not fill with fluid. 2. Systemic circuit

a. The systemic circuit is composed of vessels that lead from the left ventricle to all body parts (including vessels supplying the heart cells itself) and back to the heart. b. Systemic circuit includes the aorta and all its branches as well as the system of veins that return oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium.

15.7 Arterial System

  1. Principal branches of the aorta a. The branches of the ascending aorta include the right and left coronary arteries. b. The branches of the aortic arch include the brachiocephalic trunk , left common carotid artery , and left subclavian artery. c. The branches of the descending aorta include the thoracic and abdominal groups. d. The abdominal aorta terminates by dividing into right and left common iliac arteries.
  2. Arteries to the brain, head, and neck include branches of the subclavian and common carotid arteries.
  3. Arteries to the shoulder and upper limb a. The subclavian artery passes into the arm, and in various regions, it branches into the axillary and brachial arteries. b. Branches of the brachial artery include the ulnar and radial arteries.
  4. Arteries to the thoracic and abdominal walls a. Branches of the subclavian artery and thoracic aorta supply the thoracic wall. b. Branches of the abdominal aorta and other arteries supply the abdominal wall.
  5. Arteries to the pelvis and lower limb a. The common iliac artery supplies the pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limb. b. The femoral artery of the lower limb becomes the popliteal artery that branches into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries.

15.8 Venous System

  1. Characteristics of venous pathways a. The veins return blood to the heart. b. Larger veins usually parallel the paths of major arteries.
  2. Veins from the brain, head, and neck a. The jugular veins drain these regions. b. Jugular veins unite with subclavian veins to form the brachiocephalic veins.
  3. Veins from the upper limb and shoulder a. Sets of superficial and deep veins drain the upper limb. b. Digital veins drain into pairs of radial veins and ulnar veins , which merge to form a pair of brachial veins. c. The major superficial veins are the basilic and cephalic veins. d. Basilic and brachial veins merge to form the axillary vein. e. The median cubital vein in the bend of the elbow is often used as a site for venipuncture.
  4. Tributaries of the brachiocephalic and azygos veins drain the abdominal and thoracic walls.
  5. Veins from the abdominal viscera a. The blood from the abdominal viscera generally enters the hepatic portal system and is transported to the liver.