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Chemistry Midterm Study Guide: Key Concepts and Formulas, Exams of Chemistry

Virginia State University (VSU)Chemistry

This chemistry midterm study guide provides a comprehensive overview of essential concepts and formulas. It covers topics such as the scientific method, atomic structure, chemical laws, radioactivity, isotopes, electron shells, molecules, matter, and chemical bonding. The guide also includes definitions of key terms and examples of calculations, making it a valuable resource for students preparing for their chemistry midterm exam. It also includes a section on polyatomic ions and chemical equations, providing a complete review of the material.

Typology: Exams

2025/2026

Available from 10/08/2025

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CHEM MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE
•Science is an accumulation of knowledge about nature and our physical world and
of theories that we use to explain that knowledge.
•The experimental roots of chemistry are in alchemy, a mixture of chemistry and
magic
•How to design and document an experiment
oAsk a question Do background research Construct a hypothesis test
your hypothesis by doing an experiment analyze your data and draw a
conclusion report your results (was your hypothesis correct?)
oFive steps in the scientific method
▪Describe and formulate a question to answer formulate a
hypothesis: A statement that predicts what you think will happen
Develop an experiment Observe and analyze the results state your
conclusion. Did you accept or reject the hypothesis? What have you
learned based on the information collected?
•Characteristics or components of science
oReproducibility, Testability, Tentativeness, Predictability, Explanatory
•A variable is something that can change over the course of an experiment.
oDisagreement often results from the inability to control variables
•Concepts of scientific law and theory
oLarge amounts of scientific data can sometimes be summarized in brief
statements called scientific laws. Many scientific laws can be stated
mathematically and are universal. Under the specified conditions, they hold
everywhere in the observable universe.
oScientists organize the knowledge they accumulate on a framework of detailed
explanations called theories. A theory represents the best current explanation
for a phenomenon, but it is always tentative. Theories that make successful
predictions are usually widely accepted by the scientific community.
•Understand how to calculate
oDensity
D = m/V
oMass
M = d X V
oVolume
V = m/d
•Know structure of atom and its subatomic particles (nucleus, proton and electron)
and how to derive the quantity of one if given the quantity of another. Know the
meaning of nucleon, atomic number and atomic mass.
oElectrons – negatively charged particles
oProtons – smallest positively charged particles
oNeutrons – neutral particles with no electrical charge
oAtomic number – the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of
any element. It is the number that determines the identity of an element
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CHEM MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE

  • Science is an accumulation of knowledge about nature and our physical world and of theories that we use to explain that knowledge.
  • The experimental roots of chemistry are in alchemy , a mixture of chemistry and magic
  • How to design and document an experiment o Ask a question  Do background research  Construct a hypothesis  test your hypothesis by doing an experiment  analyze your data and draw a conclusion  report your results (was your hypothesis correct?) o Five steps in the scientific method ▪ Describe and formulate a question to answer  formulate a hypothesis: A statement that predicts what you think will happen  Develop an experiment  Observe and analyze the results  state your conclusion. Did you accept or reject the hypothesis? What have you learned based on the information collected?
  • Characteristics or components of science o Reproducibility, Testability, Tentativeness, Predictability, Explanatory
  • A variable is something that can change over the course of an experiment. o Disagreement often results from the inability to control variables
  • Concepts of scientific law and theory o Large amounts of scientific data can sometimes be summarized in brief statements called scientific laws. Many scientific laws can be stated mathematically and are universal. Under the specified conditions, they hold everywhere in the observable universe. o Scientists organize the knowledge they accumulate on a framework of detailed explanations called theories. A theory represents the best current explanation for a phenomenon, but it is always tentative. Theories that make successful predictions are usually widely accepted by the scientific community.
  • Understand how to calculate o Density D = m/V o Mass M = d X V o Volume V = m/d
  • Know structure of atom and its subatomic particles (nucleus, proton and electron) and how to derive the quantity of one if given the quantity of another. Know the meaning of nucleon, atomic number and atomic mass. o Electrons – negatively charged particles o Protons – smallest positively charged particles o Neutrons – neutral particles with no electrical charge o Atomic number – the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of any element. It is the number that determines the identity of an element

o Mass number (or nucleon number) is the number of protons + neutrons

  • Understand the laws of conservation of mass, definite or constant proportion and multiple proportion. o Law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change o Law of definite proportions states that a compound always contains the same elements in certain definite proportions and in no others o Law of multiple proportions stated that elements might combine in more than one set of proportions, with each set corresponding to a different compound.
  • Know the differences between alpha, beta and gamma particles (radioactivity) o Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from certain unstable elements. o Alpha particles have a mass four times that of a hydrogen atom and a charge twice the magnitude of, but opposite in sign to, that of an electron. An alpha particle is in fact identical to the nucleus of a helium atom and is often symbolized by He 2+ o Beta particle is an electron, although it has much more energy than an electron in an atom. o Gamma rays are not deflected by a magnetic field. They are a form of electromagnetic radiation, much like the X-rays used in medical work but even more energetic and more penetrating.
  • Understand what Isotopes are o Atoms of an element can have different masses, and such atoms are called isotopes.
  • Electron shells o 1S o 2S22P o 3S23P63D o 4S24P63D104F
  • A molecule is a group of atoms chemically bonded, or connected, to one another
  • Matter is the stuff that makes up all material things. It is anything that occupies space and has mass.
  • Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter that an object contains. o Mass of an object does not vary with location
  • Weight measure force o Weight varies with gravity, mass does not
  • Pure matter is considered to be a substance , defined as having a definite, or fixed, composition that does not vary from one sample to another.
  • The composition of a mixture of two or more substances is variable. The substances retain their identities. They do not change chemically; they simply mix. Mixtures can be separated by physical means. Mixtures can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

each ion with its charge (positive ion to the left), then transpose the charge numbers (but not the plus and minus signs) and write them as subscripts.

4 3 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 3 4 4 4

  • The bond formed with atoms share electrons is called a covalent bond. o Covalent , or molecular , compounds are those in which electrons are shared, not transferred. Such compounds generally have molecules that consist of two or more nonmetals. o Mono (1), di (2), tri (3), tetra (4), penta (5), hexa (6), hepta (7), octa (8), nona (9), deca (10)
  • The electronegativity of an element is a measure of the attraction of an atom of that element in a molecule for a pair of shared electrons. The atoms to the right in the periodic table are, in general, more electronegative than those to the left.
  • When the electrons in a covalent bond are not equally shared, the bond is said to be polar. The bond in a hydrogen chloride molecule is described as a polar covalent bond , whereas the bond in a hydrogen molecule or a chlorine molecule is a nonpolar covalent bond. A polar covalent bond is not an ionic bond.
  • In an ionic bond, one atom completely loses an electron.
  • Table 4.4 Some Common Polyatomic Ions Charge Name Formula 1+ Ammonium ion NH + Hydronium ion H 3 O+ 1– Hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion

HCO –

Hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate) ion HSO – Acetate ion CH 3 CO –^ (or C 2 H 3 O – ) Nitrite ion NO – Nitrate ion NO – Cyanide ion CN– Hydroxide ion OH– Dihydrogen phosphate ion H 2 PO – Permanganate ion MnO – 2– Carbonate ion CO 2– Sulfate ion SO 2– Chromate ion CrO 2– Hydrogen (monohydrogen) phosphate ion

HPO 2–

Oxalate ion C 2 O 4 2– Dichromate ion Cr 2 O 7 2–