Download CLEP CHEMISTRY EXAM FINAL SCRIPT 2026 COMPLETE SOLUTION SET and more Exams Chemical Kinetics in PDF only on Docsity!
CLEP CHEMISTRY EXAM FINAL SCRIPT 2026
COMPLETE SOLUTION SET
โ J.J. Thompson. Answer: Observed deflection of particles in a cathode ray tube; proposed that atoms are composed of positive and negative charges; developed the plum pudding model of the atom โ Robert Millikan. Answer: Calculated the charge-to-mass ratio of electrons using oil drops falling in an electric field; surmised the charge of a single electron โ Ernest Rutherford. Answer: Used the deflection of alpha particles in a cathode ray tube to discover that most of the atom is empty space, with protons and neutrons centered in the nucleus. โ Niels Bohr. Answer: Determined that electrons exist around the nucleus at a fixed radius; electrons with higher energy exist farther from the nucleus. Electrons give off electromagnetic radiation when moving between energy levels. โ Max Planck. Answer: Determined that energy is quantized, or composed of discrete bundles. โ 6.63 x 10^-34 J*sec. Answer: Planck's Constant (h)
โ 3.00 x 10^8 m/sec. Answer: Speed of Light (c) โ E = hv. Answer: Energy of a Photon Formula (1) โ E = hc / wavelength. Answer: Energy of a Photon Formula (2) โ Louis DeBroglie. Answer: Combined Einstein's relationship between mass and energy and the relationship between velocity and the wavelength of light. All particles with momentum have a corresponding wave nature. โ Wavelength = h / mv. Answer: Wavelength of Particles Formula โ Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. Answer: It is impossible to simultaneously know the position and momentum of an electron. โ Erwin Schrodinger. Answer: Attributed a wave function to electrons, describing the probability of where an electron might exist. โ Orbitals. Answer: Regions of high probability where electrons might exist; broken into four levels: s, p, d, or f
- Magnetic (ml)
- Magnetic Spin (ms) โ Principal Quantum Number. Answer: The shell or energy level an electron occupies; values from 1-7. Electrons with higher values are farther from the nucleus. โ Angular Momentum Quantum Number. Answer: The subshell the electron occupies; describes the shape of an electron's orbital. n = 1: l = 0 (s) n = 2: l = 0 (s), 1 (p) n = 3: l = 0 (s), 1 (p), 2 (d) n = 4: l = 0 (s), 1 (p), 2 (d), 3 (f) โ Magnetic Quantum Number. Answer: Represents the orbital position. l = 0: ml = 0 (1 possible s orbital) l = 1: ml = - 1, 0, 1 (3 possible p orbitals) l = 2: ml = - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2 (5 possible d orbitals) l = 3: ml = - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 (7 possible f orbitals)
โ Magnetic Spin Quantum Number. Answer: Each orbital contains at most 2 electrons: one with a positive spin (+1/2) and one with a negative spin (-1/2) โ Dimagnetic. Answer: Elements that have paired electrons in each orbital; all subshells are filled. These elements aren't affected by magnetic fields โ Paramagnetic. Answer: Elements that have an unpaired electron in at least one orbital; creates a magnetic field in the atom that responds to external magnetic fields. โ Electron Configurations. Answer: Identify the number of electrons in each type of orbital at each energy level โ Orbital notation. Answer: Identifies where each electron exists in each orbital. Example: Nitrogen (N) = 1s^2:2s^2:2p^ โ Aufbau Principle. Answer: Electrons exist first at the lowest possible energy level, unless energy has put them into an excited state โ Hund's Rule. Answer: Electrons enter orbitals of equal energy singly, with the same spin, before becoming paired.
โ Sigma bond. Answer: The first covalent bond between nonmetals โ Pi bond. Answer: Each additional covalent bond between non- metals after a sigma bond; much weaker than sigma bonds. โ Nonpolar covalent bond. Answer: Created when atoms share their electrons equally; usually occurs when two atoms have similar or the same electron affinity. The closer the values of their electron affinity, the stronger the attraction; normally the difference in electronegativity is >0.4. โ Polar covalent bond. Answer: Occurs when the electrons between atoms are not equally shared. The atom with the higher electronegativity will have a stronger pull for electrons, resulting in the molecule having a slightly positive side and a slightly negative side. Normally the difference in electronegativity is between 0.4 and 1.7. โ Dipole moment. Answer: The measure of net molecular polarity. The larger the difference in electronegativities of bonded atoms, the larger the moment. โ Network covalent structure. Answer: A chemical structure in which the atoms are bonded by a group of covalent bonds in a continuous network.
โ Lewis Structure. Answer: A model of the valence electrons that are involved in covalent bonding โ Resonance structure. Answer: An attempt to model delocalized electrons โ Hybridization. Answer: The process by which electrons mix traits of different atomic orbitals to create bonding orbitals; or, the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds โ VSEPR. Answer: Valence shell electron-pair repulsion; electron pairs will repel each other, making each electron pair as far away as possible from every other electron pair. โ Expanded octets. Answer: Created when highly electronegative atoms bond to large central atoms and there is no space to allow either five or six electron pairs around the central atom. Require d- electrons to participate in hybridization. โ Isomers. Answer: Molecules that have the same formula but different structure or arrangement of atoms.
โ T = 0.693 / k. Answer: Half-life formula โ P1V1 = P2V (The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, when temperature is constant). Answer: Boyle's Law โ V1T2 = V2T (The volume of a gas is directly proportional to temperature, when pressure is constant). Answer: Charles's Law โ P1T2 = P2T (The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to temperature, when volume is constant). Answer: Law of Gay-Lussac โ Ptotal = P1 + P2 + ... + Pn (The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture.). Answer: Dalton's Law โ V1n2 = V2n (The volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles of gas present when temperature is constant). Answer: Avogadro's Law
โ PV = nRT (Pressure x Volume = number of gas moles x ideal gas constant x absolute temperature). Answer: Ideal gas law formula โ 0.082 Latm / Kmol. Answer: Ideal gas constant (R) โ 273 K; 1.0 atm; 1.0 mol gas = 22.4 L gas. Answer: Standard Temperature and Pressure (3 components) โ P(mm) = dRT (Pressure x molar mass = density x ideal gas constant x absolute temperature). Answer: Ideal gas law formula (in terms of density) โ 1/2 (ma x va^2) = 1/2 (mb x vb^2) (Two gases at the same temperature and pressure will have the same kinetic energy; v = velocity; m = mass). Answer: Graham's Law โ ra^2 / rb^2 = Mb / Ma (gas molecules of smaller molar mass move faster than gas molecules of larger molar mass). Answer: Graham's law of effusion
โ Simple cubic unit cells. Answer: These have one atom at each of the corners of the cube; containing a total of one atom per unit cell. โ Face-centered crystal. Answer: A simple cubic unit cell with one additional atom shared between two unit cells on each face of the cube; a total of three atoms per unit cell. โ Body-centered crystal. Answer: A simple cubic unit cell with one additional atom in the center of the cube, for a total of two atoms per unit cell โ Amorphous solids. Answer: These don't display a specific geometry; example: glass โ Solvation. Answer: The interaction of solvent molecules with solute molecules to form loosely bonded combinations. โ Hydration. Answer: The solvation process when water is the solvent. โ Miscible solutions. Answer: These occur when one substance is soluble in all proportions with another substance.
โ Saturation. Answer: A solid solute is in equilibrium with dissolved solute. โ Solubility. Answer: The molar concentration of dissolved solute at saturation โ Supersaturation. Answer: A solution that contains more solute than required for saturation โ P = kC (The amount of gas that can dissolve in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.). Answer: Henry's Law โ M = moles solute / liters solution. Answer: Molarity formula โ pH = - log [H+]. Answer: pH formula โ Molality = Moles solute / kilograms solvent. Answer: Molality formula โ mole fraction = moles solute / total solution moles. Answer: Mole Fraction formula
โ Lewis theory. Answer: An acid is an electron-pair acceptor, and a base is an electron-pair donor. โ Neutralization. Answer: The process where an Arrhenius acid and base are combined to form a salt and water. โ Amphoteric. Answer: Compounds that can act as either acids or bases โ Precipitation reactions. Answer: Occur when soluble reactants are mixed together to form an insoluble product (see solubility rules) โ Net ionic reaction. Answer: A reaction that shows only ions that combine to form the precipitate. โ Spectator ions. Answer: Ions that remain dissolved in a precipitation reaction. โ Oxidation reaction. Answer: An atom increases control over an electron; a loss of electrons โ Reduction reaction. Answer: An atom decreases control over an electron; a gain of electrons
โ Combustion reaction. Answer: Oxygen combines with another compound to form water and carbon dioxide โ Synthesis reaction. Answer: Two or more simple compounds combine to form a more complicated one โ Decomposition reaction. Answer: A complex molecule breaks down to make simpler ones. โ Single displacement reaction. Answer: One element trades places with another element in a compound. โ Double displacement reaction. Answer: The anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, forming two entirely different compounds. โ Voltaic cell. Answer: Converts chemical energy into electrical energy by isolating the oxidation and reduction half-reactions โ Electromotive force. Answer: The force in a voltaic cell with which the electrons flow through an external wire from the negative electrode to the positive electrode
โ K(eq) = [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b. Answer: Equilibrium constant (Keq); aka law of mass action โ K(reverse) = 1 / K(forward). Answer: Equilibrium constant for a reverse reaction โ Q= [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b. Answer: Reaction Quotient When Q > K, reaction proceeds left When Q < K, reaction proceeds right When Q = K, reaction is in equilibrium โ K(p) = K(c)(RT)^โn (partial pressure equilibrium constant = molar concentration equilibrium constant x ideal gas law x absolute temperature x net moles of gas (products - reactants). Answer: Gas Equilibrium Constant โ Buffer. Answer: An aqueous combination of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid โ pH = pK(a) + log ([A-] / [HA]) (= - log of equilibrium constant of acid + log [molar concentration of base / molar concentration of acid]). Answer: Henderson- Hasselbach Equation (pH of solution)
โ RR = โconcentration / โtime. Answer: Reaction Rate โ Rate Law. Answer: Describes the rate of the reaction as a function of a rate constant dependent on temperature and the concentrations of reactants Rate = k (rate constant) x [molar concentration of reactants]^reaction order โ Keq = k forward / k reverse. Answer: Equilibrium Constant โ ln k = (-Ea / RT) + ln [A] (ln constant = - activation energy / ideal gas constant x temperature
- ln molar concentration of reactant). Answer: Temperature, rate constant, and activation energy formula โ Activation energy. Answer: The amount of energy needed to cause a reaction to occur โ Catalysts. Answer: Increase the rate of a reaction by facilitating a faster pathway without being used up themselves in the reaction. โ Mechanism. Answer: The combination of steps in a chemical reaction that must add to yield the total reaction
