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Communication Reference Models and Protocols, Exams of Advanced Education

Kabarak UniversityAdvanced Education

A detailed overview of various communication reference models and protocols, including the open system interconnection (osi) model, tcp/ip, and input-process-output (ipo) model. It covers the functions, operations, responsibilities, maintenance, and management of different layers within these models, such as the physical layer, data link layer, network layer, and application layer. The document also discusses concepts like circuit switching, packet switching, line coding, phase modulation, data link layer framing, lan topologies, ethernet standards, ip addressing, subnetting, routing, and tcp/udp protocols. This comprehensive information can be useful for students studying computer networks, telecommunications, or related fields.

Typology: Exams

2023/2024

Available from 08/09/2024

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CNIT 240 Final Exam Review With 100%
Correct Answers 2024
What are the components of communications? - Correct Answer-- source
- destination
- message
- transmission medium
What is a layered approach to communications? - Correct Answer-- provides a logical
breakdown in functions, operations, responsibilities, maintainance, and management of
a system
- each layer performs a specific set of functions or tasks
- layers rely on other layers to perform their specified tasks
- use defined interfaces to communicate between layers
- provides the opportunity to improve, enhance, replace components of the system
without need to replace entire system
List some communication reference models - Correct Answer-- Open System
Interconnection (OSI)
- TCP/IP
- Input-Process-Output (IPO)
What is the OSI model? - Correct Answer-- defines 7 layers in order to describe end-to-
end communications between any two systems
- provides open interconnections between layers (ie. can support multi-vendor
environments)
What are some of the OSI model's rules for communication? - Correct Answer--
communication between layers is handled in specified (defined) manner
- each layer is only able to communicate with its adjacent layers
- each layer relies on layers below it to perform their specified function
- each layer relies on layers above it to perform their specified function
What are the 7 layers of the OSI model? - Correct Answer-"Please do not throw
sausage pizza away" (bottom to top)
- physical layer
- data link layer
- network layer
- transport layer
- session layer
- presentation layer
- application layer
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pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
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pf13
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Partial preview of the text

Download Communication Reference Models and Protocols and more Exams Advanced Education in PDF only on Docsity!

CNIT 240 Final Exam Review With 100%

Correct Answers 2024

What are the components of communications? - Correct Answer-- source

  • destination
  • message
  • transmission medium What is a layered approach to communications? - Correct Answer-- provides a logical breakdown in functions, operations, responsibilities, maintainance, and management of a system
  • each layer performs a specific set of functions or tasks
  • layers rely on other layers to perform their specified tasks
  • use defined interfaces to communicate between layers
  • provides the opportunity to improve, enhance, replace components of the system without need to replace entire system List some communication reference models - Correct Answer-- Open System Interconnection (OSI)
  • TCP/IP
  • Input-Process-Output (IPO) What is the OSI model? - Correct Answer-- defines 7 layers in order to describe end-to- end communications between any two systems
  • provides open interconnections between layers (ie. can support multi-vendor environments) What are some of the OSI model's rules for communication? - Correct Answer-- communication between layers is handled in specified (defined) manner
  • each layer is only able to communicate with its adjacent layers
  • each layer relies on layers below it to perform their specified function
  • each layer relies on layers above it to perform their specified function What are the 7 layers of the OSI model? - Correct Answer-"Please do not throw sausage pizza away" (bottom to top)
  • physical layer
  • data link layer
  • network layer
  • transport layer
  • session layer
  • presentation layer
  • application layer

What is the physical layer of the OSI model? - Correct Answer-- responsible for transmission and receipt of bit stream to/from nodes

  • solely concerned with signaling techniques (activating, maintaining, terminating physical circuit)
  • electrical, mechanical, and functional control of data communications circuits in networks
  • will pass received information up to layer 2
  • does NOT include the physical media!!
  • passes bit stream to layer 2 for frames/cells construction
  • provides buffering for frame fragments
  • performs a simple "error-detection" routine (at signal level) What is the data link layer of the OSI model? - Correct Answer-- responsible for providing POINT-TO-POINT validity of the data (via point-to-point checking/correction; CRC is most common approach)
  • not all LAN architectures can support reliable delivery (must verify frame integrity; acknowledge that each frame was received intact)
  • UTILIZES FRAMES!
  • converts data to frames
  • independent address architecture from other layers
  • procedures and protocols for reliably operating communication links What are the data link sub-layers? - Correct Answer-MAC functions
  • ensures access to shared medium
  • responsible for framing data prior to physical transmission
  • transmitting frames between end nodes using functionality of physical-layer devices LLC functions -provides reliable delivery of layer 3 PDUs through service access points
  • organizing an interface to network layer, which is directly adjacent to it
  • ensures reliable frame delivery with predefined reliability level What is the network layer of the OSI model? - Correct Answer-- enables INTERNETWORKING!
  • establishes routes between source and destination NETWORKS
  • END-TO-END!
  • relies on higher layer protocols for error detection and correction
  • UNRELIABLE!
  • not logically required for connectivity on a LAN (layer 3 services are often required by applications that do interface directly with layer 2)
  • utilizes PACKETS (reliable)! or datagrams (unreliable)
  • converts DATA TO PACKETS!
  • includes routable/routed protocols (routable: IP, IPX, AppleTalk; routed: RIP, OSPF, BGP)
  • reliable? no
  • scope: end-to-end Data Link Layer
  • format: frame
  • reliable? yes
  • scope: point-to-point Physical Layer
  • format: bitstream
  • reliable? no
  • scope: node-to-node What are the layers of the TCP/IP model? - Correct Answer-from botton to top
  • network access (compares to layers 1-3 of OSI)
  • internet (compares to layer 3 of OSI)
  • transport or host-host (compares to layers 4-5 of OSI)
  • application (compares to layers 5-7 of OSI) What is the IPO model? - Correct Answer-- input-processing-output INPUT:
  • bitstream, frame, packet OUTPUT:
  • encapsulated "message" Which model(s) should be used in a business-oriented discussion? - Correct Answer-- OSI model
  • IPO model Which model(s) should be used in a technology-oriented discussion? - Correct Answer-- TCP/IP model How is data represented at the physical layer? - Correct Answer-- bits
  • smallest single piece of data What is character encoding? - Correct Answer-- process of transforming human readable text into machine readable codes
  • ASCII (7 bit characters + 1 parity bit)
  • EBCDIC (8 bit characters)
  • UNICODE (16 bit characters; multiple language support, symbols and marks, vendors not responsible for enable support in OS) What are the two major options for data transmission? - Correct Answer-- serial
  • parallel What is serial data transmission? - Correct Answer-- SINGLE channel carries all data from source to destination
  • data sent as bits in SEQUENTIAL! manner
  • nearly all LAN & WAN technologies use serial communications
  • able to send over LONG distances
  • Telco/ISP links, Ethernet, SATA What is parallel data transmission? - Correct Answer-- SINGLE channel carries all data from source to destination
  • data sent as bits ARRANGED ACROSS EIGHT OR MORE WIRES SIMULTANEOUSLY!
  • faster transmission rates
  • utilized internal to computing devices and only over SHORT distances (interference by EMI)
  • PCI, memory bus, older printers, etc What are two mechanisms to handle the exchange of detectable signals (data)? - Correct Answer-- synchronous
  • asynchronous What is synchronous data transmission? - Correct Answer-- TIME-BASED!
  • clock provides synchronization to handle this communcation (internal/external)
  • timing maintained regardless of presence of data Serial:
  • T-carrier system, SONET, frame relay, xDSL, ISDN, USB, firewire Parallel:
  • internal buses, printers, scanners What is asynchronous data transmission? - Correct Answer-- NO TIMING SOURCE to control when data is sent
  • utilizes START & STOP BITS to indicate beginning and end of communication (1, 1.5, or 2 stop bits)
  • synchronization MUST BE RE-ESTABLISHED for every communication cycle Serial:
  • keyboard, mice, ATM, firewire Parallel:
  • not many communications protocols or standards What is simplex transmission? - Correct Answer-- can only transfer data in ONE direction
  • analogy: broadcast radio What is full-duplex transmission? - Correct Answer-- transmission in TWO directions SIMULTANEOUSLY
  • if network busy, all connections will experience degradation of services What are some properties of connectionless switching? - Correct Answer-- small overhead
  • can re-route data
  • little to no setup
  • global addressing
  • known as a datagram
  • end-user devices responsible for error correction and flow control What are some properties of connection-oriented swiching? - Correct Answer-- large overhead
  • reliability
  • setup required
  • local logical channel number addressing
  • known as a virtual circuit or packet
  • virtual circuit responsible for error correction and flow control What is source coding? - Correct Answer-- process of translating (encoding) human readable text into a transmittable state (digitization)
  • want to reduce as much redundancy as possible
  • divided into transformation, quantization, encoding What is line coding? - Correct Answer-- process of coding discrete digital information in form suitable for transmission Why is line coding necessary? - Correct Answer-- need to uniquely identify each bit in the transmission of the bitstream
  • channel is not immune to interference
  • channel may be used by other sources How is line coding accomplished? - Correct Answer-- manipulation of discrete digital electrical signals Which line coding technique is used with Ethernet networks? - Correct Answer-- differential manchester What does Nyquist's Theorem state? - Correct Answer-- as number of unique, detectable symbols increases, the data transmission rate of the link increases
  • C=2W where C is the max data rate & W is the bandwidth of the channel
  • C=2Wlog2M where M is the # of detectable events Examples: V.34 Modem: C=25,600bps 802.11 Radio: C=40 Mbps

What does Shannon's Law state? - Correct Answer-- the higher the data rate, the more interference is caused by a specified amount of noise in the channel (results in higher bit error ratio)

  • signal-to-noise rate (S/N) = 10 log (signal power/noise power)
  • C=Wlog2(1 + S/N) What is data compression? - Correct Answer-- process of replacing redundant data patterns with smaller code that represents the pattern
  • advanced compression algorithms can produce a reduction of up to 75% of original size
  • done via hardware or software (should NOT be done in both simultaneously) examples: text: huffman, shannon-fano image/video: JPEG, MPEG, WMV audio: MP3, WAV, AAC, Vorbis What is modulation? - Correct Answer-- process of converting digital bits into an analog signal that can be sent over an analog medium What is demodulation? - Correct Answer-- process of converting analog signal into a digital bit stream What is a modem? - Correct Answer-- device that performs both the process of modulation and demodulation What is the difference between an analog signal and a digital signal? - Correct Answer-- analog signals are characterized by a continuous mathematical function
  • digital signals have a fixed set of valid levels and each change consists of an instantaneous move from one level to another What is amplitude modulation? - Correct Answer-- process of manipulating the amplitude of the carrier wave in order to indicate data What is frequency modulation? - Correct Answer-- process of manipulating the frequency of the carrier wave in order to indicate data What is phase modulation? - Correct Answer-- process of manipulating the phase of the carrier wave in order to indicate data What is a baud? - Correct Answer-- number of times the signal can change per second
  • bits per second = baud * [ log2(levels) ] How can data rate be increased? - Correct Answer-- by increasing the number of signaling events
  • amount of time elapsed from original transmission to reception of accurate retransmission What are some examples of error correction? - Correct Answer-ARQ - automatic retransmission request:
  • Discrete ARQ (ACK/NAK): stop and wait
  • Continuous ARQ (ACK/NAK): sliding window & sequence numbers (requires retransmission of everything in window from error forward)
  • Selective ARQ (ACK/NAK): sliding window & sequence numbers (requires retransmission of only error frame) What is flow control? - Correct Answer-- process of managing amount of data in transit to specific destination
  • utilizes BUFFERS! What does addressing the frame allow at the data link layer? - Correct Answer-- allows data to be sent to appropriate destination and responses returned What is the physical address at the data link layer? - Correct Answer-- referred to as a MAC address
  • 48 bits in length
  • uniquely identify a specific host (interface) on a network
  • formatted as such: MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS What are some of the LAN access methodologies? - Correct Answer-- most LAN approaches require sharing of physical medium (controlled and failure recovery process)
  • random access: contention
  • controlled access: token passing
  • channelization: xDMA What is contention-based LAN access? - Correct Answer-- carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD)
  • carrier sense: process required to test the medium for current activity (ie. data transmission)
  • multiple access: based on sensing methods, access to medium can be seized by any number of hosts
  • collision detection: sample carrier and received signals to identify dissimilarities What is token passing LAN access? - Correct Answer-- specialized data frame (token) is handed from device to device indicating when a specific host can send data on the LAN
  • only one token means only one host can send data at a time
  • COLLISION-LESS approach
  • successful transmission indicated with special flag on token What is the logical topology of a network? - Correct Answer-- how the messages are passed on the LAN sequential:
  • data sent sequentially , host by host
  • each node examines destination address information
  • if destination address matches host MAC address than frame is passed up stack for processing
  • if address does not match, host must place frame back on medium and send to next host broadcast:
  • data sent simultaneously to all hosts
  • each node examines destination address information
  • if destination address matches host MAC address, then frame is passed up stack for processing
  • if address does not match, host does nothing What are the different types of physical topologies? - Correct Answer-bus:
  • linear
  • ie. single cable to which computers attach ring:
  • computers connected in closed loop mesh:
  • direct connection between each pair of computers ( (n^2-n)/2 = # connections) star:
  • all computers attach to a central point
  • center often called a hub What are the primary topologies used with LANs? - Correct Answer-- star
  • ring
  • bus What is the domain at the data link layer? - Correct Answer-- the scope at which a given communication can be received and processed
  • may differ based on hardware present What is the media access domain? - Correct Answer-- all network devices that share the LAN's bandwidth What is the contention (collision) domain? - Correct Answer-- domain in which competing devices may send data that is corrupted/destroyed by another device concurrently sending data
  • competition-based (CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, polling, etc)
  • VLANs segment media access domain
  • apply additional filtering
  • increase scalability What is Ethernet? - Correct Answer-- communication protocol that uses CSMA/CD over a variety of physical media for LANs with "sporadic but occasionally heavy traffic"
  • operates with clock rate of 20MHz
  • defines physical layer AND the connections to use (ie. cable specs) Why is Ethernet predominately used for LANs? - Correct Answer-- relatively easy to understand
  • easy to implement and scale
  • affordable
  • standardized What is IEEE 802? - Correct Answer-- umbrella standard that defines framework in which LAN/MAN communication standards and protocols to be applied
  • LAN: data network that is optimized for a moderate-sized geographic area (ie. building campus, etc)
  • MAN: data network that is optimized for a larger geographic area with moderate to high data rates
  • intended to be applicable in many environments to allow transparent access to applications (file transfers, email, database access, etc) What are two sublayers of the 802 data link layer? - Correct Answer-media access control:
  • responsible for physical CSMA
  • responsible for data encapsulation, frame assembly, parsing, and error control
  • responsible for providing synchronization to destination and receiving from source logical link control:
  • responsible for receiving and presenting data to network layer
  • defines connectionless or connection-oriented nature of communications between peers
  • performs a logical CSMA What are some other Ethernet operatiosn? - Correct Answer-- slot time: time it takes for host to send data to farthest host and back
  • interFrameGap: minimum delay between frames
  • attemptLimit: number of times a client can attempt to resend a frame
  • backoffLimit: number of times the backoff time will be doubled
  • jamSize: number of bit times that will be jammed when a collision occurs
  • maxFrameSize: largest number of octets that can be included from DA to FCS
  • minFrameSize: smallest number of octets that can be included from DA to FCS
  • burstLimit: maximum number of framed octets that can be sent by a station without recontention How is the Ethernet cable spec defined? - Correct Answer- 10BASE2: coaxial cable using manchester encoding up to 185m over bus topology ( node limit) 10BASE5: coaxial cable using Manchester encoding up to 500m over bus topology ( node limit) 10BASE-T: twisted pair cable using Manchester encoding up to 100m over star topology (1024 node limit) 10BASE-F: 850nm fiber using Manchester encoding up to 500m over star What is Fast Ethernet - Correct Answer-- enhanced data rate (100 Mbps) while maintaining backwards compatibility with 802.3 (Ethernet)
  • same frame format and protocol operations
  • operations in mixed-protocol environment What is auto-negotiation? - Correct Answer-- optional capability of fast Ethernet that enables multiple devices on same link to determine their transmission parameters (duplex, speed)
  • 33 pulses over Manchester (odd pulses = link; even pulses = data; identify link characteristics)
  • selector field (5 bits): identifies message being sent
  • tech ability field (8 bits): identifies which medium specific abilities device supports (each bit indicates separate capability; ie. 100BASE-T & full duplex, 100Base-T & half duplex, etc)
  • remote fault bit: indicates remote device has error condition
  • Ack bit: indicates successful receipt of partner info
  • next page bit: indicates another code message will follow, providing additional info What is gigabit Ethernet? - Correct Answer-- IEEE 802.3z
  • intended to further extend capabilities of LANs through faster data rates while still maintaining backwards compatibility
  • use of 4D-PAM copper:
  • twisted pair: cat 5 or better (1000BASE-T 100m limit) fiber:
  • single-mode: 1000BASE-LX (5km)
  • multi-mode: 1000BASE-LX (500m), 1000BASE-SX (500m), 1000BASE-SX (250m) What is frame bursting? - Correct Answer-- avoids overhead of CSMA/CD

What are some of the dynamic address protocols? - Correct Answer-- RARP: reverse ARP

  • BootP: bootstrap protocol
  • DHCP: dynamic host configuration protocol What is DHCP? - Correct Answer-- dynamic host configuration protocol
  • framework for passing configuration information to hosts on a TCP/IP network
  • extends BootP functionality
  • client/server architecture
  • adds capability of additional configuration options What is a DHCP lease? - Correct Answer-- DHCP issues a lease on address for a finite period
  • DHCP server can reclaim addresses if necessary
  • when lease expires, server returns address to pool of available IP addresses which allows address to be assigned to another computer
  • host can choose to relinquish or renegotiate address when DHCP lease expires What is the DHCP process? - Correct Answer-- host sends DHCP DISCOVER to look for any available DHCP servers
  • any available DHCP servers respond with a DHCP OFFER
  • host sends back a DHCP REQUEST to accept an offer from one of the DHCP servers
  • DHCP server sends back a DHCP ACKNOWLEDGEMENT confirming the request What are some of the DHCP OPTIONS? - Correct Answer-- proprietary features
  • subnet mask
  • time server
  • name server
  • print server
  • hostname
  • MTU
  • routing table entries
  • bootfile name Is DHCP secure? - Correct Answer-no How does end-to-end communication establish a uniquely identifiable network ID and host ID? - Correct Answer-IP addressing What is IP addressing? - Correct Answer-- single 32 bit binary value is assigned to each host residing in a network segment
  • represented in "dotted decimal" form
  • dotted decimal form is four 8 bit groupings (octets)

What is class-based IP addressing? - Correct Answer-- one portion of address if for subnetwork ID, host ID Class A:

  • Class ID: 1 bit (0)
  • network ID: 7 bits (126 different network IDs)
  • host ID: 24 bits (16,777,214 different host IDs) Class B:
  • class ID: 2 bits (1 0)
  • network ID: 14 bits (16,382 different network IDs)
  • host ID: 16 bits (65,534 different host IDs) Class C:
  • class ID: 3 bits (1 1 0)
  • network ID: 21 bits (2,097,150 different network IDs)
  • host ID: 8 bits (254 different host IDs) What is a subnetwork? - Correct Answer-- network segment created from a larger network segment (major network) What is a subnetwork mask? - Correct Answer-- 32 bit binary mask
  • performs a logical AND function with IP address to determine network ID (0 0 = 0; 0 1 = 0; 1 0 = 0; 1 1 = 1) What is subnetworking? - Correct Answer-- requires borrowing of bits to create a more specific network ID (subnetwork ID) What are some of the limitations of classful subnetworking? - Correct Answer-- only subnet the major network once
  • all subnets must be of equivalent size
  • two reserved subnets for each classful subnet process (all 0s: original network ID; all 1s: broadcast)
  • reserved host IDs (all 0s: subnetwork ID; all 1s: broadcast) What is a variable length subnet mask (VLSM)? - Correct Answer-- eliminates some limitations of fixed length subnetting
  • provides more granular control of network address space What is classless subnetting? - Correct Answer-- no consideration for address classes
  • provides most granular control of network address space
  • classless interdomain routing (CIDR) What is the best option for space allocation in subnetting? - Correct Answer-- minimize host space/maximize subnet space OR

Physical

  • interfaces (physical I/O ports): define the physical communication medium, framing ( or cell format), and appropriate connection
  • configuration (port number, transmission technology, bandwidth, protocols supported) Logical
  • utilizes configuration provided by physical connectivity
  • routing table: correlation of port number (interface) with layer 3 address that is reachable via that interface
  • default route: associates physical/logical interface with all unknown layer 3 destinations (used to minimize routing tables) What are some of the physical components of a router? - Correct Answer-- CPU
  • RAM (NVRAM, flash, "memory")
  • BIOS
  • OS (IOS, JunOS, FTOS, ADTRAN OS)
  • motherboard
  • I/O ports
  • power supply
  • enclosure (chassis & cover) Describe the routing process - Correct Answer-- gateway is accessed by clients via transmitted frames (client = source MAC, gateway = destination MAC)
  • gateway receives layer 2 frames, reconstructs packets, and interrogates packet header (originating client = source IP; destination client = destination IP)
  • gateway makes routing decisions based upon destination MAC, destination IP, routing protocol
  • encapsulates packet within modified layer 2 frames (gateway router = source MAC, next-hop router = destination MAC)
  • forwards frame to next-hop router What is a distance vector in routing? - Correct Answer-- primarily utilizes measure of distance to calculate best route
  • hop count What is a link state in routing? - Correct Answer-- utilizes a variety of link status information to calculate best route
  • reliability, capacity, load, delay, etc What are of the routing protocol evaluation criteria? - Correct Answer-- optimality: capability to select the best available route (routing metrics)
  • efficiency: extent to which a protocol makes use of router resources
  • robustness: ability to function during periods of network instability
  • convergence: ability to detect network topology changes
  • scalability: capability of network to grow gracefully

What are some types of routes? - Correct Answer-- host route: entry for a specific host (/32)

  • subnet: entry for portion of a major netowrk
  • summary: entry for a group of contiguous subnets
  • major network: entry for classful network
  • supernet: entry for group of contiguous major networks
  • default: entry for all unknown destinations What are the different route types? - Correct Answer-- connected: path to a network that has a direct connection to the gateway
  • static: manually specified path to a destination network
  • default: path to a "helper" when exact path to network is not known
  • dynamic: path that is gained via a routing protocol that provides the path to a remote destination network What is inter-router communication? - Correct Answer-- agreed upon communications mechanism used for each device attempting to learn and/or share information about other networks What is routing? - Correct Answer-- address processing
  • client access to a local gateway
  • processing at local gateway
  • forwarding process: longest match algorithm
  • PROCESSING OF PACKETS TO FORWARD THEM TO CORRECT DESTINATION NETWORK! What is the longest match algorithm? - Correct Answer-- process of selecting the most specific entry in the routing table that matches the destination address What are routing protocols? - Correct Answer-- establish efficient "paths" to a specific destination (network or host)
  • define preferential "path" utilization via metrics
  • converge: process by which all routers in a network agree upon that network's topology
  • do NOT forward data packets What are metrics in routing? - Correct Answer-- primary term for distinguishing best path from current location to desired destination
  • specify a means for each path (route) to be evaluated against a specific standard What is TCP? - Correct Answer-- provides a reliable HOST-TO-HOST connection
  • includes controls for initiation, basic prioritization, flow control, congestion, avoidance, and termination of connection
  • many revisions