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CON 237 STUDY 2026 FINAL REVIEW EXAM
โ Common Sense. Answer: information accepted because it just makes sense and people tend to think everyone knows it. (one + one = two) (sixty seconds in a minute) โ Authority. Answer: the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. โ Personal Experiences. Answer: an ability or competence or a person that's collectively learned from self-study, work experience, training provided by a workplace, training from work, professional training, a seminar, and an academic conference. โ Tradition. Answer: the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation, or the fact of being passed on in this way. โ Science. Answer: the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation, experimentation, and the testing of theories against the evidence obtained. โ Deductive Reasoning. Answer: from "macro premises to specific cases".
โ Inductive Reasoning. Answer: the process of generalizing from specific observations โ Characteristics of Scientific Research. Answer: - Science is Empirical
- Science is Falsifiable
- Science is Systematic
- Science is Provisional
- Science is Transparent โ Science is Empirical. Answer: relies on empirical data/evidence (evidence that can be observed or verified with our senses) ex. not systematic. โ Science is Falsifiable. Answer: deals with testable questions, creating a testable hypothesis that is possible to disprove. โ Science is Systematic. Answer: following systematic procedures. โ Science is Provisional. Answer: scientists are willing to reconsider ideas if warranted by the evidence and ideas are likely to be accepted when they closely explain the evidence, explain many
โ Sample. Answer: a subset of the population โ Representative Sample. Answer: a group of people chosen so their characteristics closely match those of the population of interest (to be generalizable) โ Quota Sample. Answer: groups in the population are presented in represented propositions โ Convenience Sample. Answer: chosen because of its ease of availability and study. (random study of 100 students on the UWW campus from different places on the campus) โ Random Assignment. Answer: refers to how you select individuals from the population to participate in your study. โ Random Sampling. Answer: refers to a type of probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a subset of participants from a population. โ Independent Variables. Answer: a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure.
โ ยท Dependent Variables. Answer: what happens as a result of the independent variable. โ Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. Answer: an expectation or belief that can influence your behaviors, thus causing the belief to come true. โ Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Examples. Answer: - Jane believes she will fail her exam, so she doesn't study and ends up failing.
- Mike thinks he's bad at cooking, so he never tries and orders take- out instead. โ Common Types of Studies. Answer: - Case Study
- Field Research
- Analysis of Existing Sources
- Survey
- Interviews
- Experiment โ Case Study. Answer: a process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time. โ Field Research. Answer: is a qualitative method of research concerned with understanding and interpreting the social
โ Causation. Answer: indicates a similar but different relationship between variables, namely that one variable produces an effect on another variable or causes it. โ Positive Correlation vs. Negative Correlation. Answer: positive correlation exists when two variables operate in unison so that when one variable rises or falls, the other does the same, and negative correlation is when two variables move opposite one another so that when one variable rises, the other falls. โ No Correlation. Answer: there is no relationship between the two variables. In other words, as one variable moves one way, the other moves in another unrelated direction. โ Strong Correlation vs. Weak Correlation. Answer: a coefficient above 0.75 or below - 0.75 is considered a high degree of correlation, while one between - 0.30 and 0.30 is a sign of weak correlation. โ Why can't we infer a causal relationship based on correlational data? Identify possible '3rd variable. Answer: - This is because no variables are manipulated in a correlation study, and it is impossible to determine the causal relationship.
- The third variable problem means that a confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not. The directionality problem is when two variables correlate
and might have a causal relationship, but it's impossible to conclude which variable causes changes in the other. โ Church attendance boosts immunity. (C or C). Answer: (Causal) โ Texting improves language skills. (C or C). Answer: (Causal) โ Facebook users get worse grades in college. (C or C). Answer: (Correlational) โ Want a higher GPA? GO to a private college! (C or C). Answer: (Causal) โ Kindergarten leads to crime. (C or C). Answer: (Causal) โ Chocolate consumption creates Nobel prize winners. (C or C). Answer: (Causal) โ Examples of Trustworthy Sources.. Answer: - Journals
- News Outlets
- Books
- Websites
- Google Scholar
โ Bar Graphs. Answer: a chart that compares the relative number of items by using parallel rectangular bars of varying lengths. (the bars can be vertical or horizontal and of different sizes) โ Line Graphs. Answer: a diagram whose points are connected to show the relationship between two or more variables (that is, it shows how one thing changes in relation to a change in something else.) โ Flowcharts. Answer: a diagram that uses connected boxes, circles, and other shapes to show the steps in a process or a procedure. โ Table. Answer: shows the relationship between facts and figures by arranging information in rows and columns. โ How might Common Graphs be Misleading?. Answer: Graphs can be misleading if they include manipulations to the axes or scales, if they are missing relevant information, if the intervals an an axis are not the same size, if two y-axes are included, or if the graph includes cherry-picked data. โ Attribution. Answer: understanding the cause of one's own or other's behavior.
โ Internal Attribution. Answer: when an individual uses a personal reason as the cause for a situation or event instead of an external attribution. โ External Attribution. Answer: interpreting an event or behavior as being caused by the situation that the person is in, such as their social or physical environment. โ Fundamental Attribution Error. Answer: also called the correspondence bias, occurs when we mistakenly attribute a person's actions to their personality, not their environment. โ Self-Serving Bias. Answer: refers to how we explain our behavior depending on whether the outcome of our behavior is positive or negative. โ Dual-Processing Theory. Answer: - Automatic Precursors - affected reactions approach-avoidance
- Controlled Precursors - reasoned attitude's explicit intentions โ Heuristic. Answer: the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions.
โ Intimacy. Answer: liking (friendship): warmth, bondedness, closeness, and romantic love. โ Commitment. Answer: decision to commit. โ Passion. Answer: physical attraction โ Cognitive Perspective. Answer: focuses on how internal thoughts and feelings influence one's behavior and emphasizes the importance of memory, perception and attention, language, decision-making, and problem-solving. This approach often compares the human mind to that of a computer. โ Humanistic Perspective. Answer: emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as self-actualization, esteem, love and belonging, and safety needs and helps people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being. โ Self-Actualization. Answer: the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities, etc... (desire to become the most that one can be) โ Esteem. Answer: respect, self-esteem, status, recognition, strength, freedom.
โ Love & Belonging. Answer: friendship, intimacy, family. โ Safety Needs. Answer: personal security, employment, resources health, property โ Physiological Needs. Answer: air, water, food, sleep, clothing โ Psychodynamic Perspective. Answer: emphasizes unconscious psychological processes and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality. โ Conscious Level. Answer: thoughts, perceptions โ Precocious Level. Answer: memories, stored knowledge โ Unconscious Level. Answer: fears, violent motives, selfish needs irrational wishes, shameful experiences. โ Behavior Perspective. Answer: the way we behave and learn can be explained through our interactions with the environment. โ Biological/Neuroscience Perspective. Answer: relates to the way that people act in terms of how they came to be with this perspective, genetics in the human body affect the way that they
โ Asch's Conformity Study (Basic Procedures). Answer: - Groups of eight male college students participated in a simple "perceptual" task. In reality, all but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was about how the remaining participants would react to the actors' behavior.
- The actors knew the true aim of the experiment but were introduced to the subject as other participants. Each student viewed a card with a line on it, followed by another with three lines labeled A, B, and C (see accompanying figure). One of these lines was identical in length to that on the first card, and the other two lines were longer or shorter (i.e., a near-100% rate of correct responding was expected). Each participant was then asked to say aloud which line matched the length of that on the first card. Before the experiment, all actors were given detailed instructions on how they should respond to each trial (card presentation). They would always unanimously nominate one comparator, but on certain trials, they would give the correct response and on others, an incorrect response. The group was seated such that the real participant always responded last. โ Asch's Conformity Study (Basic Procedures Con.). Answer: - Subjects completed 18 trials. In the first two trials, both the subject and the actors gave the obvious, correct answer. On the third trial, the actors would all give the same wrong answer. This wrong responding recurred on 11 of the remaining 15 trials. It was subjects' behavior on these 12 "critical trials" (the 3rd trial + the 11 trials where the actors gave the same wrong answer) that formed
the aim of the study: to test how many subjects would change their answer to conform to those of the 7 actors, despite it being wrong. Subjects were interviewed after the study including being debriefed about the true purpose of the study. These post-test interviews shed valuable light on the studyโboth because they revealed subjects often were "just going along." โ Asch's Conformity Study (Main Findings). Answer: - In the control group, with no pressure to conform to actors, the error rate on the critical stimuli was less than 0.7%.
- In the actor condition also, the majority of participants' responses remained correct (64.3%), but a sizable minority of responses conformed to the actors' (incorrect) answer (35.7%). The responses revealed strong individual differences: 12% of participants followed the group in nearly all of the tests. 26% of the sample consistently defied majority opinion, with the rest conforming on some trials. An examination of all critical trials in the experimental group revealed that one-third of all responses were incorrect. These incorrect responses often matched the incorrect responses of the majority group (i.e., actors). Overall, 74% of participants gave at least one incorrect answer out of the 12 critical trials. โ Milgram's Obedience Experiment. Answer: a famous and controversial study that explored the effects of authority on obedience.
- Individual Difference
- Motive
- Consequence
- Peer Pressure
- Morals
- Opinion โ Obedience. Answer: A type of social influence in which a person obeys a direct order from another to perform an action. โ Factors that Influence Obedience.. Answer: - Participant only delivers memory test.
- The basic setup
- Learner in the same room
- Participants physically place the learner's hand on the shock plate
- Experimenter phones in instructions
- The presence of two defiant participants
- The person who directs the participant seems to be another participant. โ Major Ethical Concerns in Research. Answer: - Conformity
- Mistreatment
- Failure to follow Protocol.
- Absent or Inadequate Informed Consent
- Exposure of Subjects to Physical or Psychological Harm
- Exposure of Subjects to Harm Due to Unacceptable Research Practices or Failure โ Sociology. Answer: public issues in a larger social context. (ex. patters, institutions, social functions, and use of symbols) โ Social Problems. Answer: causes and solutions lie outside the individual and the immediate environment. โ Personal Problems. Answer: causes and solutions lie within the individual and his or her own environment. โ Sociological Imagination. Answer: an awareness of the relationship between an individual and wider society, a way to observe the social world and assumes that social appearances often aren't what they seem while empathizing links between history and biography. โ Sociological Perspective. Answer: behavior must be understood within a larger social context.
