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Consumer Behavior: A Comprehensive Overview, Exams of Advanced Education

University of WitwatersrandAdvanced Education

A comprehensive overview of consumer behavior, covering key concepts, influencing factors, and research methods. It explores the decision-making process, cultural influences, and ethical considerations in consumer research. The document also delves into various data collection techniques, including surveys, focus groups, interviews, and observational methods. It highlights the importance of understanding consumer behavior for marketing professionals, ethicists, policymakers, and academics.

Typology: Exams

2024/2025

Available from 12/15/2024

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CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR REVISION 2025
What is consumer behaviour? - Consumer behaviour reflects the totality of consumer's
decisions with respect to the acquisition, consumption and disposition of goods,
services, activities, people and ideas by human decision making units over time.
What is an offering? - An offering is a product/service/idea/experience offered by
marketing organisations to consumers.
What does acquisition mean? - Acquisition is the way in which people obtain goods and
services and can occur through buying/renting/leasing/trading/sharing. The acquisition
of offerings is affected by attitudes towards materialism, status and futuree.
What is the usage of an offering? - The usage of an offering is the very core of
consumer behaviour, and symbolises something about who we are, what we value and
what we believe. Marketers must be sensitive to when consumers are likely to use a
product, whether they find it effective, whether they control their consumption of it and
how they react after using it.
What is the disposition of an offering? - The disposition refers to how consumer get rid
of an offering and has important implications for marketers. For instance, with
increasingly eco-minded consumers, people tend to seek out biodegradable products
made from recycled materials or choose goods that do not pollute when disposed of.
How do consumers make financial decisions? - Consumers generally know how to
budget and plan for ordinary purchases but tend to underestimate spending on out-of-
the-ordinary purchases.
How do you describe today's consumers? - Today's consumers are more connected,
are easily able to research offerings online, access communications and promotions
through multiple media and can check reviews easily.
What are some major factors about consumer behaviour? - 1. Consumer behaviour can
involve many people and does not necessarily reflect the action of a single individual.
2. Consumer behaviour involves many decision: who what, when, where, how and why
to acquire, use and dispose of an offering.
3. Consumer behaviour involves emotions and coping where consumers often use
products to regulate their feelings.
What is the main process of making decisions? - The main process goes from problem
recognition and the search for information to making judgements and decisions and
finally to making postpurchase evaluations.
What is a consumer's culture? - A consumer's culture is the typical/expected
behaviours, norms and ideas that characterise a group of people.
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CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR REVISION 2025

What is consumer behaviour? - Consumer behaviour reflects the totality of consumer's decisions with respect to the acquisition, consumption and disposition of goods, services, activities, people and ideas by human decision making units over time. What is an offering? - An offering is a product/service/idea/experience offered by marketing organisations to consumers. What does acquisition mean? - Acquisition is the way in which people obtain goods and services and can occur through buying/renting/leasing/trading/sharing. The acquisition of offerings is affected by attitudes towards materialism, status and futuree. What is the usage of an offering? - The usage of an offering is the very core of consumer behaviour, and symbolises something about who we are, what we value and what we believe. Marketers must be sensitive to when consumers are likely to use a product, whether they find it effective, whether they control their consumption of it and how they react after using it. What is the disposition of an offering? - The disposition refers to how consumer get rid of an offering and has important implications for marketers. For instance, with increasingly eco-minded consumers, people tend to seek out biodegradable products made from recycled materials or choose goods that do not pollute when disposed of. How do consumers make financial decisions? - Consumers generally know how to budget and plan for ordinary purchases but tend to underestimate spending on out-of- the-ordinary purchases. How do you describe today's consumers? - Today's consumers are more connected, are easily able to research offerings online, access communications and promotions through multiple media and can check reviews easily. What are some major factors about consumer behaviour? - 1. Consumer behaviour can involve many people and does not necessarily reflect the action of a single individual.

  1. Consumer behaviour involves many decision: who what, when, where, how and why to acquire, use and dispose of an offering.
  2. Consumer behaviour involves emotions and coping where consumers often use products to regulate their feelings. What is the main process of making decisions? - The main process goes from problem recognition and the search for information to making judgements and decisions and finally to making postpurchase evaluations. What is a consumer's culture? - A consumer's culture is the typical/expected behaviours, norms and ideas that characterise a group of people.

What are some factors that define a consumer's culture? - 1. Reference groups and other social influence: reference groups are people whose values and shared and opinions are respected.

  1. Diversity influences: religious, ethnic and religious groups can directly or indirectly affect decisions that are made.
  2. Household and social class influences.
  3. Values, personality and lifestyle. Who benefits from the study of consumer behaviours? - 1. Marketing managers who need consumer behaviour insights to understand what consumers and clients value in order to develop, communicated and deliver appropriate goods and services.
  4. Ethicists and advocacy groups: create public awareness of inappropriate practices.
  5. Public policy makers and regulators need to understand consumer behaviour to develop policies and rules to protect consumers from unfair, unsafe or inappropriate marketing practices.
  6. Academics need to disseminate and generate consumer behaviour knowledge.
  7. Consumers and society need to understand consumer behaviour as it provides tools for better consumer decision making. What are the marketing implications of consumer behaviour? - It helps in developing and implementing a consumer-oriented strategy, selecting a target market, developing products, positioning and making promotion and marketing communication decisions, pricing decisions and distribution decisions. What is primary data? - Data collected for its own purpose. What is secondary data? - Data collected by an entity for one purpose and used by another entity for another purpose. What are surveys? - Surveys are methods of collecting information from a sample of consumers, usually by asking questions to draw conclusions about a target population. This can be conducted in person/mail/over phone/using web. Surveys can help marketers understand media usage and product purchasing patterns and be used to collect information from consumers by ensuring responses are completely anonymous. What are focus groups? - Focus groups are led by trained moderators to discuss an issue or offering with small groups of consumers to identify and test new product ideas. What are interviews? - Interviews involve direct contact with consumers to provide more in depth data than surveys. It can also uncover broader attitudes that affect behaviour across product categories. What is storytelling? - Storytelling is where consumers tell researchers stories about their experiences with a product. This may sometimes be hypothetical scenarios to reveal consumers' needs, feelings and perceptions from interpretation.
  1. Trade group: A organisation formed by people who work in the same industry collecting research to better understand their own industry.
  2. Government: to provide guidelines to help marketers avoid misleading consumers.
  3. Consumer organisations: Conduct research to protect or inform consumers.
  4. Academics and academic research centers: studies to simply enhance general understanding of consumer behaviour. What are some of the ethical issues in consumer research? - 1. Studying consumer behaviour in different countries may pose special challengers such as focus groups not being appropriate in all countries/situations. Consumers may also not be able to compare research in different countries.
  5. Some consumers worry that the process of researching consumer behaviour can result in higher costs.
  6. Invasion of consumer privacy: Some worry that marketers known too much and this data can be sold or used inappropriately.
  7. Deceptive research practices such as promising anonymity. What are some specialised observational study designs? - 1. Contrived observation: researcher changes the environment and observes if there is any change in behaviour.
  8. Content analysis: media content is coded across time and space to gather evidence of trends.
  9. Empathic design: observing consumers using products or services in their own environment this can be done using behaviour recording devices such as eye-tracking devices. What are some limitations of the observational methods? - It is impossible to observe their motives, attitudes and intentions. Observational studies can also be fairly time consuming. What are some of the biases from survey responses? - 1. There is a large non- response bias since the average consumer has no incentive/interest/good memories/good insight
  10. Many responses are "constructed" on the spot rather than retrieved from memory.
  11. Self-presentation bias: respondents want to be seen as rational, well-informed and "normal" and hence take cues from question wording. What are the different sampling methods? - 1. Purposive sampling: homogeneity on variables relevant to group dynamics and heterogeneity on variables to ensure a variety of opinions. 2.Random sampling: each sample has an equal probability of being chosen.
  12. Convenience sampling: selection of population members that are conveniently available to participate in the study.
  13. Quota sampling: minimal quota is met from each mutually exclusive segment.
  14. Judgemental sampling: based on the researcher's knowledge and professional judgement.
  15. Snowball sampling: reliance on referrals from existing participants.

What are the different thesis which can be derived from a single experiment? - 1. X may be causing Y.

  1. Y may be causing X.
  2. An underlying variable Z may be causing both X and Y.
  3. X may be causing Q which causes Y. What does random assignment in experimentation refer to? - This means that every individual has equal chance of being assigned to control or treatment groups in order to cancel out individual differences. What are some issues which may arise in running experiments? - 1. Within-subject designs can allow for comparison of the same participant across different manipulations and requires fewer participants. However, there can also be carry-over effects and fatigue effects.
  4. Between-subject designs allow for independent individual measurement and there would be no influence by learning or fatigue effects. However, a larger number of participants is needed and there can be individual differences. What is internal validity? - Internal validity is the ability of the experiment to show the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable. What are the threats to internal validity of an experiment? - 1. Selection: non-equivalent groups
  5. History: environmental effects of time
  6. Maturation: effect of time on a subject
  7. Testing: one study can affect subsequent testing.
  8. Interactive testing: your experience with a question can affect subsequent answers. What is external validity? - This is the applicability of experimental results to situations external to actual experimental contexts. What are factorial designs? - - refer to notes What is motivation? - Motivation is the inner state of activation that provides the energy needed to achieve a goal and results in high-effort behaviour. High-effort behaviour is where people are willing expand time and energy on preparatory behaviours. What does a consumers tendency to match anticipated and actual effort mean? - If consumers believe that the anticipated effort will be too much, they will simplify it such as ordering online instead of queuing. What do consumers do when they are highly motivated? - They pay careful attention/think about it/attempt to understand or comprehend goal relevant information to evaluate it critically and try to remember it for later use.
  1. Safety: the need for shelter, protection and security.
  2. Social: the need for affection, protection and to belong.
  3. Egoistic: the need for prestige, success, accomplishment and self-esteem.
  4. Self-actualisation: the need for fulfilment and enriching experiences. What are the different types of needs? - 1. Social needs: externally directed and relate to other individuals. (requires the presence and actions of other people.
  5. Personal needs: needs for sleep/novelty/control/understanding which involve only ourselves and can affect the usage of certain goods and services.
  6. Functional needs: motivate the search for products that solve consumption-related problems.
  7. Symbolic needs: related to how we perceive ourselves, how we are perceived by others, how we relate to others and the esteem we are held by others.
  8. The need for cognition and stimulation: the need for understanding and mental stimulation or even sensory stimulation. What are some of the characteristics of needs? - 1. Needs can be internally or externally activated.
  9. Need satisfaction is dynamic: constant process of need fulfilment.
  10. Needs exist in a hierarchy: multiple can exist at the same time but some are more important than others.
  11. Needs can conflict:
  • approach-avoidance: inner struggle about acquiring/consuming an offering that fulfils one need but fails to fulfil another.
  • approach-approach: inner struggle about which offering to acquire when each can satisfy an important but different need.
  • avoidance-avoidance: inner struggle about which to acquire when both fail to satisfy an important but different need. Sometimes, people may not even know their own needs. How do you define a goal? - A goal is a particular end state/outcome that a person would like to achieve. When people feel like they are making progress towards a goal, motivation is increased to direct attention to whichever is closer/better. The more easily consumers can visualise their goals, the more motivate and committed they are to putting in effort to achieving those goals. Goals can be concrete or more abstract and endure over a longer period. What is goal setting? - Goal setting is when people know what to pursue and at what level, they will then be motivated to form a goal intention and develop a plan to take action. They will then implement and control the action and evaluate the success or failure in attaining a goal. What is the appraisal theory? - This is the theory of emotions that proposes emotions are based on an individual's assessment of a situation or outcome and its relevant to his/her own goal. For instance, the feeling of pride when a good outcome they are responsible for is achieved.

What is self-control? - Self-control is the process consumers use to regulate feelings, thoughts and behaviours in line with long-term goals rather than pursuing short-term goals. What is ego-depletion? - Ego-depletion is the consumer's ability to control his/her own behaviours impaired by the mental effort it takes to make a decision. What is perceived risk? - Perceived risk is the extent to which consumers anticipate negative consequences of buying/using/disposing an offering to emerge and positive consequences to not emerge. This tends to be higher when negative consequences are more likely such as when consumer has little experience with the product. What are the different types of perceived risk? - 1. Performance risk: the possibility that an offering will not work as well as hoped/expected.

  1. Financial risk: the extent buying/using/disposing a product is perceived to have the potential to create financial harm.
  2. Physical risk: the extent which buying/using/disposing an offering is perceived to have the potential to create physical harm/threat to one's safety.
  3. Social risk: the extent to which buying/using/disposing an offering is perceived to have the potential to do harm to one's social standing.
  4. Psychological risk: the extent to which buying/using/disposing an offering is perceived to have potential to harm one's own sense of self and create negative emotions.
  5. Time risk: The extent to which buying/using/disposing of an offering is perceived to have potential to lead to loss of time. What happens when our behaviour is inconsistent with our attitudes? - We tend to try to eliminate or understand this inconsistency and consumers are less motivated to process information highly inconsistent with prior attitudes. How do you define consumer ability? - This is the extent to which consumers have the required resources to make an outcome happen. What are the factors affecting consumer ability? - 1. Financial resources: in some situations, money can enhance ability to make decisions and take action.
  6. Cognitive resources: knowledgeable consumers are better able to think deeply about information than equally motivated but less knowledgeable consumers.
  7. Emotional resources: a consumer's ability to experience empathy can affect processing of information and decisions such as the tendency to donate to charitable causes.
  8. Physical resources affect consumer's ability to use certain goods or services.
  9. Social resources: the extent which people can leverage resources contained within their social relationships.
  10. Cultural resources: the knowledge of and access to a system of cultural institutions in society.
  • smaller package sizes: enable more cash-strapped consumers to buy a product How can marketers affect consumer opportunity? - - repeated communications
  • reduce distractions/time pressure
  • reduce purchasing/usage/learning time (e.g. online registration to speed up future purchases)
  • automate processes (e.g. automatic software updates) What is consumer exposure? - Exposure means consumers coming into contact with a stimuli. What does marketing stimuli mean? - Marketing stimuli can be information about products/brands/other offerings communicated by marketer or non-marketer sources. What are factors affecting consumer exposure to a product? - 1. Position of an ad within a medium such as higher exposure to online ads that appear higher on the search list.
  1. Product distribution: the more stores carry the product/brand, the higher the likelihood of consumers encountering it.
  2. Shelf location: products located at eye level would be able to get more exposure. What is selective exposure? - Consumer actively seek out certain stimuli and avoid/resist others especially since consumers are exposed to so many stimuli that they cannot possibly process it all. Consumers tend to avoid ads for product categories they do not use or mentally block out ads they have seen before. How do consumers avoid television advertisements? - - mentally block it out
  • do something else
  • leave the room
  • zipping: record TV shows and fast forward through commercials when viewing later.
  • zapping: switching to other channels during commercial breaks.
  • cord-cuttingL dropping cable television subscriptions in favour of streaming services. What is consumer attention? - Attention is the amount of mental activity a consumer devotes to a stimulus. What are the characteristics of attention? - 1. Attention is limited: it is not possible to attend to all stimuli in the environment. At most, consumers are able to attend to multiple stimuli if processing them is relatively automatic, well-practiced and effortless.
  1. Attention is selective: consumers select what to pay attention to and simultaneously what not to pay attention to. If they repeatedly pay selective attention to a particular product, they are more likely to choose a product that capture their attention in the past.
  2. Attention can be divided: consumers can also become distracted when one stimulus draws attention from another.

What is the difference between focal and nonfocal attention? - Focal attention is the stimuli the consumer is focused on and non focal attention is the stimuli consumers are simultaneously being exposed to. What is preattentive processing? - This is the non-conscious processing of stimuli, such as in peripheral vision. We are usually not aware we are absorbing or processing that information. What can marketers do to make stimuli attract a consumer's attention? - 1. Make stimuli personally relevant: appeal to their needs/values/emotions/goals such as by showing the "typical consumer"

  1. Make stimuli pleasant: attractive models/music/humour to generate positive feelings and capture the viewer's attention
  2. Make stimuli surprising: using novelty/unexpectedness/puzzles to capture attention since it requires resolution.
  3. make stimuli easier to process: concreteness to make it easier to imagine a stimulus/ limited number of competing stimuli How can attention be used to define consumer segments? - 1. Consumers that pay minimal attention to an ad because the elements are not relevant to them
  4. Focus on visually pleasant elements of the ad
  5. Consumers that spend the longest time looking at an ad and devote equal time to the picture/package/headline/body text especially if products are personally relevant and it is a potentially risky purchase. What is habituation? - Habituation is the process by which stimulus loses its attention- grabbing abilities by virtue of familiarity. This highlights the need for marketers to alter stimulus periodically to counter habituation. What is consumer perception? - Consumer perception is the process of determining properties of stimuli using vision/hearing/taste/smell/touch. How do consumers perceive stimuli through vision? - 1. Size and shape: Consumers tend to perceive that packages in eye-catching shapes contain more product. Consumers may not notice downsizing of up to 24% if packaging shape is elongated at the same time.
  6. Lettering: size and style can attract attention and support brand recognition and image. (e.g. distinctive CocaCola script)
  7. Image location of package: images located near the top-left of packages leads to the perception of "lighter" products (.e.g healthier choice symbols)
  8. Color
  9. Appearance of being new or worn: consumers spend worn bills faster than new bills as they are disgusted at the thought of used money being passed through many hands. How do consumer perceive stimuli through hearing? - - more likely to notice loud music/voices and stark noises

What are the different types of message comprehension that can occur? - - objective comprehension: whether the meaning consumers take from the message is consistent with what message is actually stated.

  • subjective comprehension: different/additional meaning consumers attach to a message whether or not intended
  • miscomprehension: consumers inaccurately construe the meaning contained in a message Consumers may not comprehend a marketing message at all if they have low motivation and limited opportunity to process. What is the impact of cultures on message comprehension? - - low-context cultures: consumers place more emphasis on what is said than surrounding visuals
  • high-context cultures: much of the messages meaning is implied indirectly and communicated non-verbally rather than stated explicitly through words (e.g. Asian countries) What are consumer inferences? - Consumer inferences are conclusions consumers draw/ interpretations formed based on the message. How do consumers make inferences? - 1. Brand name and symbols (e.g. descriptive names like speedo)
  1. Product features and packaging (e.g. stereotyping of product based on country of origin)
  2. Price: consumers tend to infer that high-priced products are also high in quality
  3. Message wording: the mere sounds of numbers can influence and distort perception of numerical magnitude on an unconscious level.
  4. Retail atmospherics, displays and distributions: consumers tend to make impulse purchases in disorganised environments.
  5. Product surface: people perceive products with a matte surface as more durable How do marketers embed advertising into content? - Product placement: the insertion of branded goods and services within the content of popular media to increase realism and sense of continuity while reducing production costs for programmes. What are the factors influencing attention? - Affective states:
  • arousal has an inverted U-shaped relationship with attention
  • involvement: the motivational state that guides the selection of stimuli for attention What affects preattentive processing? - This depends on hemispheric lateralisation where studies have shown that presenting stimuli in the right visual field results in left hemisphere processing which is better at processing counting, forming sentences and words. Stimuli presented in the left visual field on the other hand are processed in the right hemisphere which is best at processing music, pictures and spatial information. What is consumer's attention worth? - Marketing values the potential for attention. Nowadays, people buy their own attention by paying for blockers.

What is consumer memory? - Consumer memory is the persistence of learning over time, via storage and retrieval of information either consciously or unconsciously. What is retrieval? - Retrieval is the process of remembering or accessing what was previously stored in memory. We might remember things, experiences or evaluations. What is sensory memory? - Sensory memory is the input from our five senses which have been store temporarily in our memory.

  • echoic memory: sensory memory of things we hear
  • iconic memory: sensory memory of things we see
  • olfactory memory: sensory memory of things we smell What is working memory? - Working memory is the portion of our memory where incoming information is encoded or interpreted in the context of our existing knowledge and kept available for more processing. This is where most of the conscious information processing takes place and tends to be limited in capacity and short-lived in time. When MAO is low, working memory might consist of a simple reproduction. When MAO is high, there is elaborated imagery for daydreams, fantasies, visual problem solving and elaborated discursive processing. What is long-term memory? - Long term memory is the part of our memory where information is permanently stored for later use. What is episodic memory? - Episodic memory is the knowledge we have about ourselves and our personal, past experiences, including emotions and sensations tied to past experiences. Episodic memories can influence how products and services are evaluated and is a form of operant conditioning where one vivid event can produce lasting memory and changed behaviour. What is semantic memory? - This is general knowledge about an entity, detached from specific episodes. What is explicit memory? - Explicit memory is when consumers are consciously aware they remember something. What is implicit memory? - Implicit memory is when consumers are not consciously aware they remember something. It makes it easier to process information encountered before and is evidenced when process requiring memory is executed faster and more accurately. Having implicit memory is. more efficient as it would overburden the information-processing ability to constantly and consciously remember everything. This is the reason exposure to brands via advertising and other stimuli can enhance perceptual fluency and makes it easier to recognise and process perceptual information, resulting in more favourable brand attitudes.

Cocreation is where consumers collaborate with companies to shape brand personality and develop new products which can enhance the fit between one's personality and brand personlity. What is script? - Script is a special type of schema which is the knowledge of a sequence of events in performing an activity. What this taxonomic category refer to? - This refers to how consumers classify a group of objects in an orderly, often hierarchical way, based on their similarity to one another. When a product is categorised to be a member of that category, consumers may infer that product to have features or attributes typical of that category. What is a prototype? - A prototype is a category member perceived to be the best example of a category. A prototype would have the most associations with other members of its category and shares the fewest with members from different categories. What is prototypicality? - Prototypicality is the extent to which an object is representative of its category. What does knowledge flexibility mean? - This refers to how the content and structure of consumer's associative networks and categorisations are flexible and adaptable to requirements of tasks he/she faces. What are goal-derived categories? - This is where things are viewed as belonging in the same category because they serve the same goals. The associations becomes activated in consumer's interval networks depending on the time interval between now and the moment of implementing goals. What is the construal level theory? - This theory describes different levels of abstractness in associations the consumer has about things and how consumer's psychological distance influence the abstractness of associations and his or her behaviour. How and why do consumers differ in terms of knowledge content and structure> - - goal and timing influences content and structure of knowledge within minds of consumers

  • consumer's culture and level of expertise influence structure and content of knowledge between consumers
  • experts differ from novices in aspects such as how experts have richer associative networks with more associations and tend to evaluate products more favourably when presented in more abstract associations How does retrieval failures occur? - 1. Decay: the weakening of memory strength over time which can be reduced by repetition of information and recirculation.
  1. Interference: the strength of memory deteriorates over time because of competing memories. Similarity between brands, products and ads will increase the likelihood of memory interference.
  1. Primary and recency effect where there is a tendency to show greater memory for things that come first or last in the sequence. What are some retrieval errors that can occur? - 1. Selective: only remember the good things but forget the bad.
  2. Confused memory (e.g. source confusion is where we remember the story but are confused about the source)
  3. Distorted memory:remember experiences or events that did not happen. What are characteristics of stimulus? - 1. Salience: salient objects tend to attract attention and induce greater elaboration thus creating stronger memories.
  4. Prototypicality: we are better able to recognise prototypical or pioneer brands since these have been frequently recirculated, rehearsed and linked and pioneers were the first to occupy associative links.
  5. Redundant cues: memory is enhanced when information to be learned goes together naturally. What are retrieval cues and how does it work? - Retrieval cues are stimulus that facilitates the activation of memory that can be generated internally or externally. Retrieval cues can be brand names, logos, packages, familiar branding and typefaces. How does multisensory imagery enhance retrieval of memory? - It results in dual coding of information in the form of texts and images which leads to extra and stronger associative links in the memory which enhances the likelihood of a memory being retrieved. What are consumer characteristics that affect memory retrieval? - - positive moods can enhance the recall of stimulus in general and we are more likely to recall information consistent with our mood.
  • experts have more complex category structures in memory with a greater number of higher and lower-level categories and more detail within each category
  • experts rely on intuition and processing fluency more than novices which may sometimes be fallible
  • novices exert considerable effort to recall larger sets of brand and product alternatives What are the different types of consumer learning? - 1. Cognitive learning theory: learning based on mental activity and occurs by searching for information, evaluating the information and making a decision about what is best for us.
  1. Behavioural learning theory is learning which occurs as a result of our responses to external stimuli. What is classical conditioning? - Classical conditioning is a learning theory centred on creating associations between meaningful objects/ideas to elicit desired responses.
  • forward conditioning is the pairing of two stimuli such that the conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. brand followed by attractive endorser)
  • values-driven attitudes: attitudes are generated or shaped based on individual values. For instance, consumers that value authenticity would have a more positive attitude toward a brand or offering they perceive to be general, real or true.
  • social-identity based attitude generation: the way consumers view their own social identities plays a role in forming attitudes towards products or brands. What does a cognitive response mean? - The thought we have in response to a communication such as recognitions, evaluations, associations, images or ideas. What are the analytical processes of attitude formations? - - counter argument: thought that disagrees with the message
  • support argument: thought that expresses agreement with the message
  • source derogation: thoughts that discount or attack the source of the message What is the expectancy-value model? - This is the widely-used model that explains how attitudes form or change based on belief or knowledge about an objection or action and evaluation of these beliefs. What is the theory of reasoned action? - This is a model that provides and explanation of how, when and why attitudes predict behaviour. What is the theory of planned behaviour? - This is the extension of the TORA model that predicts behaviours over which consumers perceive they have no control. How are cognitively based attitudes influenced by the communication source? - The marketing message must be credible in order to generate support arguments, restrict counter arguments and source derogations and increase belief strength. Credibility refers to the extent which a source is trustworthy, expert or has status. Consumers tend to see other consumers' opinions as less biased than the official source hence high- quality online reviews and positive word-of-mouth tend to generate a positive effect on the purchasing intent of online shoppers. Someone with high social status or experts may be credible but consumers are less likely to believe a source is credible if the source endorses multiple products. How are cognitively based attitudes influenced by the message? - 1. Argument quality: strong arguments present the best features and central merits of offerings in a convincing manner. Consumers are more persuaded by strong arguments when they devote sufficient cognitive resources to processing the information.
  1. Two-sided messages where the marketing message presents both positive and negative information which can have the unique effect of making messages more credible and reducing counterarguments. This is especially if the marketer can provide reasons for consumers to be interested in these offerings despite these problems.
  2. Comparative messages can be indirect (offering compared with unnamed competitors) and direct (explicitly named and attack competitors on the basis of attributes or benefits). Comparative messages are especially effective if backed by

other elements that makes them believable and if consumers are promotion-focused to maximise gains and positive outcomes. What are the affective foundations of attitudes? - Emotional reactions can be powerful in creating attitudes that are favourable, enduring and resistant to change. Affective responses can be generally more influential than cognitive responses in shaping attitudes towards trying a product especially when consumers are highly engaged wherein consumers are emotionally connected to a product or act and feelings act as a source of information. What are emotional appeals? - Emotional appeals are messages which have been designed to act as an emotional response. How are affectively based attitudes influenced by the source? - - attractiveness: sources that evoke a favourable response tend to be physically attractive/likeable/familiar/similar to ourselves

  • match-up hypothesis: the idea that the source must be appropriate for the product or service. For instance consumers tend to be attracted to physically attractive salespeople or to salespeople similar to themselves. How are affectively based attitudes influenced by the message? - - people tend to try to minimise feelings of shame and guilt so appeals on these emotions may not be effective
  • emotional appeals may limit the amount of product-related information consumers can process
  • fear appeals can be used to discourage behaviour but there is a limit as consumer's perceptual defence helps them block out and ignore the message -terror management theory: we cope with the threat of death by defending our world view of values and beliefs In the context of high effort, what types of ads are more effective? - - more informative ads are better liked and generate positive responses (utilitarian function)
  • consumers like an ad if it creates positive feelings/emotions (hedonic dimension)
  • consumers like interested ads which arouses curiosity and attracts attention When do attitudes predict behavior? - -Involvement/effort is high: consumers elaborate and think extensively about information that gives rise to their attitudes -Knowledge is high -Confidence is high -Peer pressure is high -Emotional attachment How does low-effort affect the way in which attitudes are formed? - As the consumers are passive recipients of the message, they do not form strong beliefs or accessible/persistent/resistant/confident attitudes. Instead, attitudes are based on the easily processed aspects of the message, the peripheral cues.