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Motivation
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
5-1 Understand how motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. 5-2 Outline how products can satisfy a range of consumer needs. 5-3 Discuss how setting goals correctly can motivate consumers to strive toward and achieve those goals.
5-4 Explain how the way we evaluate and choose a product depends on our degree of involvement with the product, the marketing message, or the purchase situation.
D
uring the COVID-19 lockdown, Americans gained nearly two pounds per month when everyone was under shelter- in-place orders at the height of the pandemic in 2020. 1 Many people have emerged from the pandemic with goals to improve their health. Imani is a woman on a fitness mission. She’s aware of thebody positivity movement, which was initiated by plus-size black women. It encourages people to love themselves as they are, regardless of whether their body conforms to an idea that Western society perpetuates.^2 She is motivated by true concern about her health. After all, she has a family history of high blood pressure and diabetes. Coincidentally, she learns that her idol Beyoncé is partnering with Peloton to create cycling, running, strength, and yoga classes that inte- grate her music with Peloton’s class content. 3 Peloton was red-hot during the pandemic as legions of gym rats had to migrate their workouts from the gym to home; the com- pany boasts more than 874,000 digital subscribers to its fitness programs.^4 And many celebrities, from Jennifer Anniston to Diddy, proudly posted photos of themselves pedal- ing their way to fitness. True, Peloton stumbled a bit post-pandemic as it had to recall a faulty treadmill product, and it miscalculated the number of people who would still be interested in buying a Peloton bike after they were allowed back outside again. 5 But the prospect of a daily bike ride while she vibes to Beyoncé’s tunes fits her plans beautifully, so like almost six million others, Imani bites the bullet, and she eagerly awaits delivery of her new Peloton bike.
Source: Kali9/E+/Getty Images.
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The Motivation Process:
Why Ask Why?
What’s the best way to get motivated to exercise more? Some people will run as far away as they can from a group exercise class. They do not enjoy the social interaction and prefer to do their own thing. For others, like Imani, the social nature of a Peloton class is what drives them. To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what they do. Why do some people choose to bungee-jump off a bridge or compete on reality shows, whereas others spend their leisure time playing chess or gardening? Whether it is to quench a thirst, kill boredom, or attain some deep spiritual experience, we do every- thing for a reason, even if we can’t articulate that reason. We teach marketing students from Day 1 that the goal of marketing is to satisfy consumers’ needs. However, this insight is useless unless we can discover what those needs are and why they exist. A beer commercial once asked, “Why ask why?” In this chapter, we’ll find out. As you can see in Figure 5.1, we’ll start with a brief discussion about the forces that influence motivation. Then, we’ll move on to goal setting and goal striving—getting from a customer’s “wish” to reality.
Push or Pull? Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation refers to the processes that lead people to behave as they do. It occurs when a need that the consumer wishes to satisfy is activated. The need creates a state of tension that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate it. Like Imani’s fitness objectives, the desired end state becomes a goal for the consumer to attain. Marketers try to create products and services to provide the desired benefits and help the consumer to reduce this tension. The motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation occurs when a person pulls from their own inherent drives; extrinsic motivation occurs when a person is pushed by an external force. Understanding what intrinsically motivates us is crucial to help us reach our goals. Metamotivation refers to people’s understanding of their own personal motivational states and the best ways to motivate themselves.^6 Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can affect people’s behavior. For instance, a study designed to understand why consumers create and post videos about brands (user-generated content) found that both intrinsic motivations, such as being naturally
Figure 5. 1 Motivation and Goals
Intrinsic and extrinsic forces
Motivation (drive)
(affected by unmetCURRENT STATE Goal setting needs)
DESIRED STATE Select goal & (goal) determine goal level
Develop and implement a plan to achieve the goal
Goal striving
OBJECTIVE 5- 1 Understand how motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
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One question that keeps some consumer researchers up at night is whether a person even needs to be aware of a motivation to achieve a goal. The evidence suggests that motives can lurk beneath the surface, and cues in the environment can activate a goal even when we don’t know it. For instance, seeing a weight scale can prime a goal to lose weight, even if we aren’t aware of that trigger. We will revisit these non- conscious influences in Chapter 8.
Self-Regulation
How much willpower do you have when it comes to controlling what you eat, how fiercely you exercise, or even what you say to your friends? Self-regulation describes our ability to monitor and manage our own emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. Psychologists tout it as the most fundamental skill to be successful at many tasks in our lives, and the best predictor of learning, of developing healthy relationships, and of well-being.^15 Having a self-regulatory strategy means that we specify in advance how we want to respond in certain situations. These “if-then” plans, or implementation intentions , may dictate how much weight we give to different kinds of information (emotional or cognitive), a timetable to carry out a decision, or even how we will deal with dis- ruptive influences that might interfere with our plans (like a bossy salesperson who tries to steer us to a different choice). 16 Consumers who know how to self-regulate are better at making plans toward goals and at transforming those plans into reality.^17 They are better at setting intentions, translating these intentions into actions, and avoiding any interference. On the other hand, failure to self-regulate can happen when we lose control of attention or misdirect our efforts, often because we let emotions take over. 18 We’ve all been there! Each of us fights a constant battle to control our desires, whether these involve splurging on expensive clothes or treating ourselves to fattening snacks. Many factors, both internal (for example, willpower) and external (for example, peer pressure), help to determine whether or when we give in. Even something as innocent as checking your Facebook page can make you lose control! Recent research implies that when you focus on what your close friends post, this makes you feel better. This momentary boost in self- esteem we get in turn prompts us to lose self-control and engage in impulsive behaviors, such as binge eating and even reckless spending that lowers credit scores.^19 A recent study shed some light on why our efforts to self-regulate get stronger or weaker over time as we progress toward a goal—and especially why what starts out as an exciting quest turns into a painful slog even though we’re getting closer to the objective. The researchers distinguished between two types of motivation: (1) Promotion motivation encourages people to focus on hopes and aspirations, while (2) prevention motivation instead focuses on responsibili- ties and duties as it prompts people to think about avoiding something negative. We referred to these strategies as “approach” and avoidance” when we talked about learning in Chapter 4. As the researchers predicted, individuals tend to be more promotion motivated in earlier stages of goal pursuit and become more prevention motivated as goal attainment
In recent years, researchers and marketers have become more aware of the role they can play in changing consumer behavior by helping people to regulate their own actions. This help may take the form of simple feedback, like a phone app for people tracking sleeping patterns, or perhaps a wearable computing device like the Fitbit that tells you how many steps you take in a day (and how many more you should take). These applications provide a feedback loop to help with self-regulation. The basic premise is amazingly simple: Provide people with information about their actions in real time, and then give them a chance to change those actions so that you push them to improve. Source: Rob Wilkinson/Alamy Stock Photo.
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draws near. The researchers speculate that when we are in the early stages of attain- ing a goal, we compare our progress with where we started, so we are optimistic. But after we reach the midpoint, we switch our reference to the end goal we’re striving for—and thus focus on our shortcomings instead. Their advice: In the early stages, focus on how attaining the goal will help you to achieve things you hope for (such as a healthy body). Then, when you’re in the home stretch, focus on how getting to your goal will help you to fulfill your responsibilities. And make a list of things not to do to stay on course. Finally, reward yourself with a break from something you don’t enjoy when you’re making progress so long as it doesn’t short-circuit your efforts (e.g., no congratulatory margaritas if you’re trying to get sober).^20
Consumer Needs
Utilitarian and Hedonic Needs
As we saw in Chapter 1, a need reflects a basic goal, such as keeping yourself nourished or protected from the elements. When we focus on a utilitarian need , we emphasize the objective, tangible attributes of products, such as miles per gallon in a car; the amount of fat, calories, and protein in a cheeseburger; or the durability of a pair of blue jeans. Hedonic needs are subjec- tive and experiential; here we might look to a product to meet our needs for excite- ment, self-confidence, or fantasy—perhaps to escape the mundane or routine aspects of life. 22 Many items satisfy our hedonic needs (there’s even a popular resort called Hedonism). Upscale brands thrive when they offer the promise of pleasure to the user—how badly do you “need” that Supreme hoodie or Coach bag?^23 Hedonic and utilitarian motivations affect consumers’ shopping behavior. For instance, con- sumers motivated to shop hedonically review larger assortments than if they shop for utilitarian reasons.^24 It’s hard to overstate the importance of hedonic consumption as an influence on consumers’ choices. This term refers to the multisensory, fantasy, and emotional aspects of consumers’ interactions with products. 25 As manufacturing costs go down and the amount of “stuff” that people accumulate goes up, consumers want to buy things that will provide hedonic value in addition to simply doing what they’re designed to do.
Buying, Having, Being
The Quantified Self Did you log your 10,000 steps today? Have you posted data from your workout so your friends can see how you did? Don’t forget to upload those pics of the yummy salad you had for lunch today! Or, maybe you’re a biohacker— a person who meticulously moni- tors their bodily processes and vital signs with the intent of creating a superhuman race. Some wear a headband that electrically stimulates the brain to improve cognition.^21 A few hardy souls even have a light- up implant surgically inserted into their arms to monitor biometric data that changes color when levels are abnormal. This self-recording of personal data is a hallmark of the quantified self (QS) movement. The first known attempt to meticu- lously self-track was by Sanctorius of Padua, who in the 16th century recorded his own weight versus food intake and waste over a 30-year period (do not try this at home!). Today, a thriving industry caters to this yearning to self-quantify. Numerous startups are betting that consumers will outsource their self- regulation as they try to morph into better, brighter, augmented versions of themselves. Companies hawk apps and other devices like Fitbits that measure how much individuals sleep, eat, walk, and spend. Some of these hi-tech tools are socially grounded; their success hinges upon consumers’ willingness to share their data with their networks to obtain reinforcement, feedback— and sometimes a modicum of shame that drives them to do better. Now, go finish those 10,000 steps so you can call it a day!
OBJECTIVE 5- Outline how products can satisfy a range of consumer needs.
For some, jumping out of an airplane is an enjoyable hedonic experience. Source: iurii/Shutterstock.
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order of abstraction, these goal levels are life themes and values, life projects, current concerns, consumption intentions, benefits sought, and feature preferences. Figure 5.2 presents this model. At each level, the person seeks different kinds of product benefits. Ideally, an individual progresses up the hierarchy until their dominant motivation is a focus on “ultimate” goals, such as justice and harmony. The highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy is self-transcendence , where an individual seeks to further a cause beyond the self and to experience a communion beyond the boundaries of the self through peak experiences. Although this sixth level of Maslow’s motivational theory is often forgotten, it was an important component of Maslow’s thinking because it reveals that the individual may put their own individual needs aside in favor of service to others or to a greater cause. 30 In other words, the individual rises above their own needs as they are driven toward a higher purpose or the meaning of life, which is a central issue of human psychology.^31 Unfortunately, this state is difficult to achieve (at least on a regular basis), even though many marketing messages claim to provide such peak experiences. Of course, the pandemic encouraged a lot of selfless behavior by caregivers and others, as many people began to rethink their priorities. The Great Resignation we witnessed in the years after- ward (more than 30 million Americans quit their jobs) as workers rethought what they wanted to do to make a living also relates to this quest for meaning. 32 Marketers’ applications of this hierarchy have been somewhat simplistic, especially because the same product or activity can gratify different needs. For example, one early study found that gardening could satisfy needs at every level of the hierarchy:^33
- Physiological^ – “I eat what I grow.” - Safety^ – “I feel safe in the garden.” - Social^ – “I can share my produce with others.” - Esteem^ – “I can create something of beauty.” - Self-actualization^ – “My^ garden^ gives^ me^ a^ sense^ of^ peace.” - Self - transcendence^ – “I can observe the cycle of life in my garden.”
Figure 5.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SELF-TRANSCENDENCE I can observe the cycle of life in my garden
SELF-ACTUALIZATION My garden gives me a sense of peace
ESTEEM I can create something of beauty
SOCIAL I can share my produce with others
SAFETY I feel safe in the garden
PHYSIOLOGICAL I eat what I grow
A basic activity like gardening can satisfy people at different levels, depending upon their motivation to engage in it. Source: Todd Arena/123RF.
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Another problem with taking Maslow’s hierarchy of needs too literally is that it is culture-bound; its assumptions may apply only to Western culture, where the typology was originally developed. People in other cultures (or, for that matter, even some in Western cultures) may question the order of the levels it specifies. A religious person who has taken a vow of celibacy would not necessarily agree that physiological needs must be satisfied before self-fulfillment can occur.
Terror Management
Because these needs are ingrained in us, the salience (awareness) of our mortality can activate certain levels of needs—we certainly saw this as many of us lost loved ones to COVID. Research on so-called terror management theory shows that making people conscious of their own death activates safety needs and motivates people to engage in healthier behaviors.^34 That body of research also shows that mortality salience makes people more likely to engage in materialistic and self-serving behaviors. 35 That said, there is also new evidence that mortality salience can also lead people toward the state of transcendence—for instance, it may motivate them to give away possessions. The jury is still out... 36
Self-Determination
According to self-determination theory , humans are intrinsically motivated by the innate psychological needs for autonomy, related- ness, and competence:^37
Organizations like the Peace Corps that need to recruit members may appeal to our need for relatedness with others as well as self-fulfillment. Source: Peacecorps.gov.
- Autonomy^ refers to the experience of volition and willingness. When this need is satisfied, we experience a sense of integrity because our actions, thoughts, and feelings are self-endorsed and authentic. When this need is frustrated, we experience a sense of pressure and often conflict, such as feeling pushed in an unwanted direction. - Relatedness^ refers to the experience of warmth, bonding, and care, and is satisfied by connecting to and feeling significant to others. Relatedness frustration comes with a sense of social alienation, exclusion, and loneliness. - Competence^ is the belief in one’s ability to perform essential tasks. It is satisfied when we capably engage in activities and experience opportunities for using and mastering skills. When this need is frustrated, we experience a sense of ineffective- ness or even failure and helplessness. Self-determination theory can be useful to understand the struggles that bottom- of-the pyramid consumers in Maslow’s scheme face. Research on impoverished consumers shows that the needs of relatedness and autonomy are useful to people only if basic life necessities are available. Those living in extreme poverty face a great deal of hopelessness, as they cannot even meet their most basic needs.^38
How “Needy” Are You? Individual
Differences in Motivation
Other motivational approaches have focused on specific needs and their ramifications for behavior. Some important needs that are relevant to consumer behavior include:
- Need to belong^ (to be in the company of other people):^
(^39) People who have a higher need to belong actively seek out the company of others. The need to belong is
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We structure purchases or consumption activities to reduce the chances that we will experience a nasty result. For example, many consumers work hard to avoid rejection by their peers (an avoidance goal). They stay away from products that they associate with social disapproval. Products such as deodorants and mouthwash frequently rely on consumers’ negative motivation when ads depict the onerous social consequences of underarm odor or bad breath. New research shows that when we face conflicting goals (for example: save money for retirement or buy nice things), these conflicting goals make us stressed and anxious.^48 The authors of that research found two simple solutions to reduce this stress: slow breathing (think mindfulness, as we discussed in Chapter 4) and transforming the anxiety into feelings of excitement. The researchers created this anxiety reappraisal intervention by simply having their participants say out loud a statement that read “I AM EXCITED!” three times. So, relabeling situations that might evoke anxiety as exciting instead (e.g., “buying a new car is fun!”) can actually lower stress—and we all can use that! Because a purchase decision can involve more than one source of motivation, consumers often find themselves in situations in which different goals, both positive and negative, conflict with one another.^49 Marketers attempt to satisfy consumers’ needs by providing possible solutions to these dilemmas. As Figure 5.3 shows, there are three general types of conflicts we should understand.
Approach–Approach Conflict
A person has an approach–approach conflict when they must choose between two desirable alternatives. A student might be torn between going home for the holidays and going on a skiing trip with friends. Or, they might have to choose between going to listen to two bands that are playing at different clubs on the opposite sides of town. The theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the premise that people have a need for order and consistency in their lives and that a state of dissonance (tension) exists when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another. We resolve the conflict that arises when we choose between two alternatives through a process of cognitive dissonance reduction , where we look for a way to reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance) and thus eliminate unpleasant tension.
Figure 5.3 Types of Goal Conflicts Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.
Approach
Approach
Avoidance
Approach
Avoidance
Avoidance
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Postdecision dissonance occurs when a consumer must choose between two products, both of which possess good and bad qualities. When they choose one product and not the other, the person gets the bad qualities of the product they buy and lose out on the good qualities of the one they didn’t buy. This loss creates an unpleasant, dissonant state that they want to reduce. We tend to convince ourselves, after the fact, that the choice we made was the smart one as we find additional reasons to support the alternative we did choose—perhaps when we discover flaws with the option we did not choose (sometimes we call this rationalization ). A marketer can bundle several benefits together to resolve an approach–approach conflict. For example, Miller Lite’s claim that it is “less filling” and “tastes great” allows the drinker to “have his beer and drink it too.”
Approach–Avoidance Conflict
Many of the products and services we desire have negative consequences attached to them as well as positive ones. We may feel guilty or ostentatious when we buy a luxury product, such as a fur coat, or we might feel like gluttons when we crave a tempting package of Twinkies. An approach–avoidance conflict occurs when we desire a goal but wish to avoid it at the same time. Some solutions to these conflicts include the proliferation of fake furs, which eliminate guilt about harming animals to make a fashion statement, and the success of diet programs such as Weight Watchers that promise good food without the calories. 50 Many marketers try to help consumers overcome guilt by convincing them that they deserve these luxuries. As the model for L’Oréal cosmetics proclaims, “Because I’m worth it!”
Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict
Sometimes we find ourselves caught “between a rock and a hard place.” We may face a choice with two undesirable alternatives: for instance, the option of either spending more money on an old car or buying a new one. Don’t you hate when that happens? Marketers frequently address an avoidance–avoidance conflict with messages that stress the unforeseen benefits of choosing one option (e.g., when they emphasize special credit plans to ease the pain of car payments).
Goal Framing Affects Goal Completion
In general, the higher we set our goals, the better we perform. A relatively easy way to encourage people to set even higher goals for themselves is to frame them correctly. A frame is simply a way of presenting information to change how it may be processed and interpreted. We will cover the process of framing in more depth in Chapter 9, but for now, it is sufficient to know that a framing effect occurs when our interpretation of information—and/or how we behave in response to that information—changes based on how the information is presented. Framing can also affect how we set goals and how we strive toward them.
Positive and Negative Frames
Recent research finds that when they set goals, consumers can decide how many goal- consistent activities to undertake (such as exercising two days per week) or how many goal-inconsistent activities to forego (such as not exercising five days per week). In other words, they can apply positive or negative frames that influence how hard they will work to achieve the goal.^51 Researchers found evidence of this framing effect by conducting multiple studies in which consumers selected activities toward a goal either by attending or skipping
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you’re deciding whether to complete a quick homework assignment that’s due this week versus that bear of a term paper you’ve been trying not to think about.
Goal Difficulty and “Emergency Reserves”
Some goals are hard to achieve, like getting fit or writing a term paper, but that should not be demotivating. In fact, hard goals can even lead to better success and greater sat- isfaction! The key is to make sure to have emergency reserves. These reserves provide a type of slack in our goal pursuit in case we fail. Recent research shows that when we actively pursue a challenging, conscious goal, we prefer harder over easier goals if we have these emergency reserves, because we view these hard goals as more valu- able than easier goals (e.g., seven days of exercise a week is more valuable than five) but also because the slack makes them more attainable than goals without the slack.^55 To show that people prefer the emergency reserves, researchers conducted a series of studies with college students. They found that students preferred an exam that required 20/25 points to pass, but with five emergency reserve points (versus requiring 15/25 or 20/25 points, without reserves). To show that even harder goals are preferred when reserves are available, they let students go online every morning and complete 35 CAPTCHAs. They got $1 each morning if they did this, and $5 if they completed their goal: 5 days a week (easy goal), 7 days a week (hard goal), 5 to 7 days a week (range goal), and 7 days a week with 2 free pass days “just in case” (hard goal with reserve). Not only did the hard goal with reserve lead to the highest performance on the exam; it was also the most satisfying experience. So, when you set a goal, especially a challenging one, be sure to identify some emergency reserves you can fall back on if necessary.
Goal Specificity
Goals cannot be too generic. They must be specific. Paying off as much debt as possible is too generic. In contrast, setting specific goals like “reducing my student loan by 25 percent this year” will be more motivating and lead to better success. Recent research demonstrates that a specific goal is more effective because it provides a concrete reference point.^56 With specific goals (e.g., save $1,000), people focus on that goal, and it “looms larger” for them. As they approach it (e.g., saving their 900th dollar), they feel more and more motivated. With nonspecific goals (e.g., save as much as you can), people instead focus on their starting point (e.g., their current savings). They become less and less motivated as they progress, because the reference point falls further away. The more specific the goal, the more motivating.
Consumer Involvement
Imagine this conversation between two shoppers at a car dealership:
Consumer #1: I want the electric one with a sunroof that can accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3 seconds and has more than 300 miles of driving range between charges. Consumer #2: I want a red one.
Involvement is “a person’s perceived relevance of the object based on their inherent needs, values, and interests.”^57 Figure 5.4 illustrates that different factors
OBJECTIVE 5- Explain how the way we evaluate and choose a product depends on our degree of involvement with the product, the marketing message, or the purchase situation.
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may create involvement. These factors can be something about the person, something about the object, or something about the situation. Our motivation to attain a goal increases our desire to acquire the products or services that we believe will satisfy it. However, as we see in the case of Consume r # at the car dealership, not everyone is motivated to the same extent. Involvement reflects our level of motivation to process information about a product or service we believe will help us to solve a problem or reach a goal.^58 Think of a person’s degree of involvement as a continuum that ranges from absolute lack of interest in a mar- keting stimulus at one end to obsession at the other. Inertia describes consumption at the low end of involvement, where we make decisions out of habit because we lack the motivation to consider alternatives. Depending on whether the need we want to satisfy is utilitarian or hedonic (see Chapter 1), as our involvement increases we think more about the product (“I’ve spent the last three days researching mortgage interest rates”) or we experi- ence a strong emotional response (“I get goose bumps when I imagine what my daughter will look like in that bridal gown”). 59 Not surprisingly, we tend to find higher levels of involvement in product categories that demand a big investment of money (like houses) or self-esteem (like clothing) and lower levels for mundane categories like household cleaners or hardware.^60 Still, bear in mind that virtually anything can qualify as highly involving to some people—just ask a “tool guy” to talk about his passion for hammers or plumbing supplies. When Apple put its first iPhone on sale, thousands of adoring iCultists around the country (including the mayor of Philadelphia) waited in front of Apple stores for days to be one of the first to buy the device—even though they could order the phone online and have it delivered in three days. Somehow that was too long to wait for a cell phone
Figure 5.4 The Elements of Involvement
ANTECEDENTS OF INVOLVEMENT
needs importance interest values
INVOLVEMENT
INVOLVEMENT = f (person, object, situation) The level of involvement may be influenced by one or more of these three factors. Interactions among person, object, and situational factors are likely to occur.
differentiation of alternatives source of communication content of communication
purchase/use occasion
elicitation of counter arguments to ads effectiveness of ad to induce purchase relative importance of the product class perceived differences in product attributes preference for a particular brand influence of price on brand choice amount of information search time spent deliberating alternatives type of decision rule used in choice
POSSIBLE RESULTS OF INVOLVEMENT
OBJECT OR STIMULUS FACTORS
PERSON FACTORS
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
with purchase decisions
with products
with advertisements
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When a consumer is highly involved with a specific product, this is the Holy Grail for marketers because it means they exhibit brand loyalty : Repeat purchasing behavior that reflects a conscious decision to continue buying the same brand. 68 Note that this definition states that the consumer not only buys the brand on a regular basis, but that they also have a strong positive attitude toward it rather than simply buying it out of habit. In fact, we often find that a brand-loyal consumer has more than simply a positive attitude; frequently, they are passionate about the product. “True-blue” users react more vehemently when a company alters, redesigns, or (God forbid) eliminates a favorite brand. One simple test to find out if you’re brand loyal: If the store is temporarily out of your favorite brand, will you buy a different product or hold off until you can get your first choice? Although everyone wants to cultivate brand-loyal customers, there is a wrinkle that sometimes confounds even the most effective marketers. We often engage in brand switching , even if our current brand satisfies our needs. Sometimes, it seems we simply like to try new things; we crave variety as a form of stimulation or to reduce boredom. Variety-seeking , the desire to choose new alternatives over more familiar ones, even influences us to switch from our favorite products to ones we like less! This can occur even before we become satiated , or tired, of our favorite. Research supports the idea that we are willing to trade enjoyment for variety because the unpredictability itself is rewarding. We’re especially likely to look for variety when we are in a good mood or when there isn’t a lot of other stuff going on.^69 So, even though we have favorites, we still
Figure 5.5 Five Types of Perceived Risk
Risk consists of money and property. Those with relatively little income and wealth are most vulnerable.
BUYERS MOST SENSITIVE TO RISK
PSYCHO- LOGICAL RISK
SOCIAL RISK
PHYSICAL RISK
FUNCTIONAL RISK
MONETARY RISK
High-ticket items that require substantial expenditures are most subject to this form of risk.
Risk consists of alternative means of performing the function or meeting the need. Practical consumers are most sensitive.
Products or services whose purchase and use requires the buyer’s exclusive commitment are most sensitive.
Risk consists of physical vigor, health, and vitality. Those who are elderly, frail, or in ill health are most vulnerable.
Mechanical or electrical goods (such as vehicles or flammables), drugs and medical treatment, and food and beverages are most sensitive.
Risk consists of self-esteem and self-confidence. Those who are insecure and uncertain are most sensitive.
Socially visible or symbolic goods, such as clothes, jewelry, cars, homes, or sports equipment are most subject to social risk.
Risk consists of affiliations and status. Those lacking self-respect or attractiveness to peers are most sensitive.
Expensive personal luxuries that may engender guilt, durables, and services whose use demands self-discipline or sacrifice are most sensitive.
PURCHASES MOST SUBJECT TO RISK
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like to sample other possibilities. However, when the decision situation is ambiguous, or when there is little information about competing brands, we tend to opt for the safe choice.
Strategies to Increase Product Involvement. Here are a few ways to increase product involvement:
1. Mass customization describes the personalization of products and services for individual customers at a mass-production price. This product involvement strategy applies to a wide range of products and services, from newspaper websites that allow readers to choose which sections of the paper they want to see, to Dell computers that you can configure, to Levi’s blue jeans that have a right leg one inch shorter than a left leg to fit an asymmetrical body (this is more common than you think).^70 2. DIY (do it yourself) refers to doing activities ourselves (e.g., home repairs or furniture assembly) rather than hiring someone else to do it. When we have the opportunity to personalize a product, our involvement increases because the item reflects our unique preferences. The DIY market is projected to reach almost $14 billion in just a few years. One reason for the boom: When we build the product ourselves, the value we attach to it increases because our own labor is involved. 71 Researchers term this the IKEA Effect. Of course, there may also be that unsettling feeling when you finish assembling a bookcase and there’s still one part left over. 3. Co-creation strategies go a step farther, because the company works jointly with customers to create value. This approach is catching on in B2B environ- ments, where organizations partner with their biggest clients to envision new solutions to their problems. For example, DHL developed robotics applications such as self-driving trolleys in warehouses that allow workers to pick merchan- dise for delivery in a more efficient way.^72 On the B2C side, Anheuser-Busch invited input from 25,000 beer drinkers when it developed a new lager called Black Crown.^73 4. Gamification is a red-hot marketing strategy today; it refers to the application of gaming principles, such as friendly competition and the ability to earn badges as you master different tasks, to nongaming contexts. This approach offers a way to dramatically increase involvement, especially for activities that can benefit from a bit of motivation. When the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) wanted to promote financial literacy, the government agency created its Money Smart program. It’s designed to look like a board game similar to Monopoly , and it challenges players to learn financial skills such as setting up a bank account, paying bills on time, and avoiding identity theft. The game attracted more than 40,000 users in a year. 74
Message Involvement
It started with Jay Z’s celebrated campaign to promote his autobiographical Decoded book. The agency Droga5 created a national scavenger hunt when it hid all 320 pages of the book (mostly blown-up versions) in outdoor spots in 13 cities that somehow related to the text on each page (e.g., on cheeseburger wrappers in New York). Coldplay borrowed a page from this book more recently to promote its album Ghost Stories. The band hid lyric sheets inside ghost stories in libraries around the world and gave out clues on Twitter. 75 This represents an emerging way to engage consumers: In alternate reality games (ARGs) , thousands of people participate in a fictional story or competition to solve a mystery.
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introduced a credit card to the French market, its ad agency created unusual com- mercials to make people question their assumptions. One ad stated, “Cats always land on their paws,” and then two researchers in white lab coats dropped a kitten off a rooftop—never to see it again (animal rights activists were not amused).^78
- Use prominent stimuli, such as loud music and fast action, to capture atten- tion. In print formats, larger ads increase attention. Also, viewers look longer at colored pictures than at black-and-white ones. - Include celebrity endorsers.^ As we’ll see in Chapter 6, people process more information when it comes from someone they admire or at least know about, whether Michael Jordan, Bill Gates, or Kylie Jenner. - Provide value that customers appreciate.^ Charmin bathroom tissue set up pub- lic toilets in Times Square that hordes of grateful visitors used. Thousands more people (evidently with time on their hands) visited the brand’s website to view the display.^79 - Invent new media platforms to grab attention.^ Procter & Gamble printed trivia questions and answers on its Pringles snack chips with ink made of blue or red food coloring, and a company called Speaking Roses International patented a tech- nology to laser-print words, images, or logos on flower petals. 80 An Australian firm creates hand stamps that nightclubs use to identify paying customers; the stamps include logos or ad messages so partiers’ hands become an advertising platform. 81 - Encourage viewers to think about actually using the product.^ If a people can imagine this, they are more likely to want to obtain the real thing. Research shows that even subtle cues in an advertisement can encourage this mental rehearsal. One simple example is orienting an image of a cup with its handle to the right so that (for a right-handed person) it matches the dominant hand and facilitates mental stimulation.^82 - Create spectacles where the message is itself a form of entertainment.^ In the early days of radio and television, ads literally were performances; show hosts integrated marketing messages into the episodes. Today live advertising that features attention-grabbing events called spectacles is making a comeback as marketers try harder and harder to captivate jaded consumers: 83 Axe body products sponsored a posh Hamptons (New York) nightclub for the whole summer season; it became The Axe Lounge, sporting branding on the DJ booth and menu and Axe products in the restrooms.
Situational Involvement
Situational involvement describes engagement with a store, website, or a location where people consume a product or service. Many retailers and event planners today focus on enhancing customers’ experiences in stores, dealerships, and stadiums. Industry insiders refer to this as a “butts-in-seats” strategy. That’s why some fans who attend Atlanta Falcons football games get visited by a cheerleader in the stands for a photo op and also why Chrysler is ramping up its efforts to get people to test drive cars at dealerships and auto shows. As the head of the car company’s “experiential marketing unit” explained, “We know a physical experience with a vehicle is a great way to allow people to try it out and move it up on their consideration list.”^84
Strategies to Increase Situational Involvement Personalization : As we saw for product involvement, retailers can personalize the messages shoppers receive at the time of purchase. For example, a few marketers tailor the recommendations they give shoppers in a store based on what they picked up from a shelf. At some Dunkin’ Donuts locations, a person who orders a morning coffee sees an ad at the cash register that pushes hash browns or breakfast sandwiches. And, of
144 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World
course, recommendation agents that provide customized suggestions when we shop online perform much the same function. High tech : The point of purchase can be much more than a place to stack up stuff and wait for people to throw it in their carts. Exciting new technologies such as augmented reality, virtual reality, and beacons allow retailers to turn the shopping experience into an adventure. We’ll revisit these options in Chapter 8. Subscription boxes : Many startups, such as FabFitFun, Birchbox Ipsy, Dollar Shave Club, and Graze, deliver “surprises” of exotic food items, personal care prod- ucts, books, wine, clothing, and many other wondrous goodies on a regular basis to consumers who sign up. Subscription company websites attract about 37 million visitors a year, and that number has grown by over 800 percent in just three years. A website called My Subscription Addiction sums up the enthusiasm these services have generated for many thousands of variety junkies.^85
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should be able to:
- Understand how motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Motivation refers to the processes that lead people to behave as they do. It occurs when a need that the con- sumer wishes to satisfy is activated. The need creates a state of tension that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate it. The motivation can be intrinsic, pulling from the person’s inherent drives, or it can be extrinsic, pushed by an external force.
- Outline how products can satisfy a range of consumer needs. Marketers try to satisfy consumers’ needs, but the reason any product is purchased can vary widely. The identification of consumer motives is an important step to ensure that a product will meet the appropriate need(s). Traditional approaches to consumer behavior have focused on the abilities of products to satisfy rational needs (utilitarian motives), but hedonic motives (such as the need for exploration or fun) also guide many purchase decisions. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs demon- strates that the same product can satisfy different needs.
- Discuss how setting goals correctly can motivate consumers to strive toward and achieve those goals.
When we set goals deliberately, when we monitor goal progress, and when we are committed to reaching the goal, we are most likely to achieve it. Consumers experience different kinds of conflicts that can impact their purchase decisions, such as approach–approach and approach–avoidance con- flicts. A goal has valence , which means that it can be positive or negative. We direct our behavior toward goals we value positively; we are motivated to approach the goal and to seek out products that will help us to reach it. In general, the higher we set our goals, the better we perform. One way to encour - age people to set even higher goals for themselves is to frame them correctly. Some factors that influence the results include the time frame, specificity, and difficulty of the goal.
- Explain how the way we evaluate and choose a product depends on our degree of involvement with the product, the marketing message, or the purchase situation. Product involvement can range from low, where con- sumers make purchase decisions based on inertia, to high, where they form strong bonds with favorite brands (cult products). Marketing strategies also need to consider consumers’ extent of engagement with the messages about their products and the environments in which consumption of these products occur.
KEY TERMS
Achievement motivation, 127 Alternate reality games (ARGs), 141 Approach–approach conflict, 134
Approach–avoidance conflict, 135 Autonomy, 132 Avoidance–avoidance conflict, 135
Body positivity, 125 Brand loyalty, 140 Co-creation, 141
