Download Conversion of Units and more Exercises Design in PDF only on Docsity!
x
C Coonnvveerrssiioonn ooff UUnniittss
11
Length
1 millimeter = 0.0394 inch 1 centimeter = 0.394 inch 1 meter = 39.4 inches 1 meter = 3.2808 feet 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile
1 inch = 25.4 millimeters 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 foot = 30.48 centimeters 1 foot = 0.305 meter 1 yard = 0.9144 meter 1 mile = 1.60935 meters
Area
1 square millimeter = 0.00155 square inch 1 square centimeter = 0.1550 square inch 1 square meter = 10.764 square feet 1 square kilometer = 0.3861 square mile
1 square inch = 6.452 square centimeters 1 square inch = 645.2 square millimeters 1 square foot = 0.0929 square meter 1 square yard = 0.8361 square meter 1 square mile = 2.590 square kilometers
Volume
1 cubic millimeter = 0.0006 cubic inch 1 cubic centimeter = 0.0610 cubic inch 1 liter = 0.26418 US gallon 1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters 1 cubic meter = 1.3079 cubic yards 1 cubic meter = 35.313 cubic feet 1 cubic meter = 264.143 US gallons
1 cubic inch = 16.3872 cubic centimeters 1 cubic inch = 1638.72 cubic millimeters 1 US gallon = 3.78533 liters 1 cubic foot = 28.32 liters 1 cubic foot = 0.02832 cubic meters 1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot = 7.48 US gallons 1 cubic yard = 0.7656 cubic meter
1
Source: North American Combustion Handbook, Volume II, North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland
OH 44105 USA, p. 317 - 325.
xi
C Coonnvveerrssiioonn ooff UUnniittss ((ccoonnttiinnuueedd))
Weight
1 gram = 15.4324 grains 1 kilogram = 2.20462 pounds 1 Tonne (metric) = 1000 kilograms 1 Tonne (metric) = 2200 pounds 1 Tonne (metric) = 1.1023 US Tons
1 grain = 0.0648 ounce 1 ounce = 28.3495 grams 1 pound = 0.45359 kilogram 1 pound = 16 ounces 1 Ton (US) = 2000 pounds 1 Ton (US) = 907.18 kilograms
Pressure
1 kg/cm 2 = 14.22 psi (lb/in 2 ) 1 bar = 750.1 mm Mercury 1 bar = 100.0 kPa (kilopascal) 1 bar = 10,200 mm WC 1 bar = 14.50 psi (lb/in^2 )
1 psi (lb/in^2 ) = 0.0703 kg/cm^2 1 psi (lb/in 2 ) = 0.06897 bar
Power, Work, and Heat
1 Calorie = 0.00397 Btu 1 Kilocalorie = 3.968 Btu 1 KCalorie/Kg = 1.8037 Btu/lb
1 Watt = 0.056884 BTU/min. 1 watt = 1 X 10 7 ergs/sec. 1 Kilowatt = 738 ft-lbs/sec. 1 Kilowatt = 1.341 horsepower
1 BTU = 252.0 Calories 1 BTU = 0.2520 Kilocalories 1 BTU/pound = 0.5556 KCal/kilogram
1 horsepower = 745.7 watts 1 horsepower = 33,000 ft-lbs/min.
xiii
S Sttrreettcchheerr CCaappaacciittyy (^) CCaallccuullaattiioonn – – (^) EEnngglliisshh UUnniittss
For Aluminum Alloys - 6061 - 6063
Alloy 6063 T4 (yield = 10000psi) Alloy 6061 T4 (yield = 16000psi) Alloy 6061 T6 (yield = 35000psi)
Stretcher Capacity US Tons
Area of Profile In 2
Weight Lb/foot
Stretcher Capacity US Tons
Area of Profile In 2
Weight Lb/foot
Stretcher Capacity US Tons
Area of Profile In 2
Weight Lb/foot
xiv
S Sttrreettcchheerr CCaappaacciittyy (^) CCaallccuullaattiioonn – – MMeettrriicc UUnniittss
For Aluminum Alloys - 6061 - 6063
Alloy 6063 T4 (yield =68.95MPa) Alloy 6061 T4 (yield =110.32MPa Alloy 6061 T6 (yield =241.33MPa)
Stretcher Capacity M Tons
Area of Profile mm^2
Weight kg/M
Stretcher Capacity M Tons
Area of Profile mm^2
Weight kg/M
Stretcher Capacity M Tons
Area of Profile mm^2
Weight kg/M
2 290 0.80 2 181 0.50 2 83 0. 4 580 1.60 4 363 1.00 4 166 0. 6 870 2.39 6 544 1.50 6 249 0. 8 1160 3.19 8 725 1.99 8 332 0. 10 1450 3.99 10 906 2.49 10 414 1. 15 2175 5.98 15 1360 3.74 15 622 1. 20 2901 7.98 20 1813 4.99 20 829 2. 25 3626 9.97 25 2266 6.23 25 1036 2. 30 4351 11.97 30 2719 7.48 30 1243 3. 35 5076 13.96 35 3173 8.72 35 1450 3. 40 5801 15.95 40 3626 9.97 40 1658 4. 45 6526 17.95 45 4079 11.22 45 1865 5. 50 7252 19.94 50 4532 12.46 50 2072 5. 60 8702 23.93 60 5439 14.96 60 2486 6. 70 10152 27.92 70 6345 17.45 70 2901 7. 75 10877 29.91 75 6798 18.70 75 3108 8. 80 11603 31.91 80 7252 19.94 80 3315 9. 85 12328 33.90 85 7705 21.19 85 3522 9. 90 13053 35.90 90 8158 22.43 90 3729 10. 95 13778 37.89 95 8611 23.68 95 3937 10. 100 14503 39.88 100 9065 24.93 100 4144 11. 110 15954 43.87 110 9971 27.42 110 4558 12. 120 17404 47.86 120 10877 29.91 120 4973 13. 125 18129 49.85 125 11331 31.16 125 5180 14. 150 21755 59.83 150 13597 37.39 150 6216 17. 175 25381 69.80 175 15863 43.62 175 7252 19. 200 29007 79.77 200 18129 49.85 200 8288 22. 225 32632 89.74 225 20395 56.09 225 9324 25. 250 36258 99.71 250 22661 62.32 250 10359 28. 275 39884 109.68 275 24927 68.55 275 11395 31. 300 43510 119.65 300 27194 74.78 300 12431 34. 325 47136 129.62 325 29460 81.01 325 13467 37. 350 50761 139.59 350 31726 87.25 350 14503 39. 400 58013 159.54 400 36258 99.71 400 16575 45. 450 65265 179.48 450 40790 112.17 450 18647 51. 500 72516 199.42 500 45323 124.64 500 20719 56. 550 79768 219.36 550 49855 137.10 550 22791 62. 600 87020 239.30 600 54387 149.56 600 24863 68. 650 94271 259.25 650 58920 162.03 650 26935 74. 700 101523 279.19 700 63452 174.49 700 29007 79. 750 108774 299.13 750 67984 186.96 750 31078 85. 800 116026 319.07 800 72516 199.42 800 33150 91. 900 130529 358.96 900 81581 224.35 900 37294 102. 1000 145033 398.84 1000 90645 249.27 1000 41438 113.
xvi
P Prreessss SSppeecciiffiicc PPrreessssuurree – – EEnngglliisshh UUnniittss
To calculate Specific Pressure on the die face:
Ps = Press tonnage ÷ container area
Ps = Press tonnage x 2000 / ππππ (container ID)
2
where Ps is in pounds/square inch and container ID is in inches (typically 3% larger than billet
diameter.
Billet Dia.-in. 6” 7” 8” 9” 10” 12” 14”
Container I.D.
- in.
Container Area - sqin
Press Tons ↓↓↓↓ Press Specific pressure on Die Face^ –^ pounds/square inch 900 60, 1200 80,010 58, 1400 93.345 68, 1600 106,680 78,377 60, 1800 120,015 88,174 67, 2000 133,350 97,971 75,009 59, 2200 107,769 82,510 65, 2400 117,566 90,011 71,120 57, 2500 122,464 93,762 74,083 60, 2750 103,138 81,492 66, 3000 112,514 88,900 72, 3250 121,890 96,308 78,010 54, 3500 103,717 84,011 58, 3750 111,125 90,011 62, 4000 96,012 66, 4250 102,013 70,842 52, 4500 108,014 75,009 55, 5000 83,344 61, 5500 91,678 67, 6000 100,013 73, 6500 79, 7000 85,
Notes:
1. Many experts recommend operating with Specific Pressure (die face pressure) in the range
of 85,000 to 115, 000 pounds/square inch.
2. Many North American extruders operate in the range 70,000 to 80,000 psi.
3. For extruding with longer billets (length greater than 4x billet diameter), Specific Pressures
must be higher in the range of 120,000 psi, due to increased container friction
2
4. The optimum range of Specific Pressure will also depend on extrusion practices and the type
of profile or bar being extruded.
2
Robbins, Paul; Dixon, Bill; Chien, Ken; and Jowett, Chris; “Today’s Understanding of the
Function and Benefits of DummyBlock Design,” Proceedings of 11th International Aluminum
Extrusion Technology Seminar, (2016), p.387-404.
xvii
P Prreessss SSppeecciiffiicc PPrreessssuurree – – MMeettrriicc UUnniittss
To calculate Specific Pressure on the die face:
Ps = Press tonnage ÷ container area
Ps = Press tonnage x 1000 / ππππ (container ID)
2
where Ps is in kilograms/square millimeter and container ID is in millimeters (typically 3% larger
than billet diameter.
Billet Dia. – in. 6” 7” 8” 9” 10” 12” 14”
Billet Dia,-mm 152 178 203 228 254 305 356 Container ID- mm
Container Area
- mm
Press MTons ↓↓↓↓ Press Specific pressure on Die Face^ –^ kilograms/square millimeter 800 39. 1000 49.74 37. 1200 59.68 44. 1400 69.63 52.08 40. 1600 79.58 59.52 46.19 36. 1800 89.52 66.96 51.97 41. 2000 99.47 74.40 57.74 45.72 37. 2200 81.84 63.52 50.29 40. 2400 89.28 69.29 54.87 44. 2600 96.73 75.07 59.44 48. 2800 80.84 64.01 51. 3000 86.61 68.58 55.65 38. 3200 92.39 73.15 59.36 41. 3400 98.16 77.73 63.06 43. 3600 82.30 66.77 46. 3800 86.87 70.48 49. 4000 91.44 74.19 51.65 38. 4500 83.47 58.11 43. 5000 92.74 64.57 47. 5500 71.03 52. 6000 77.48 57. 7000 90.40 66.
Notes:
1. Many experts recommend operating with Specific Pressure (die face pressure) in the range
of 60 to 80 kilograms/square millimeter.
2. Many North American extruders operate in the range 50 to 60 kg/mm2.
3. For extruding with longer billets (length greater than 4x billet diameter), Specific Pressures
must be somewhat higher in the range of 825MPa, due to increased container friction
3
4. The optimum range of Specific Pressure will also depend on extrusion practices and the type
of profile or bar being extruded.
3
ibid
xix
R Reeccoommmmeennddeedd TTiimmee LLiimmiitt ffoorr TToooolliinngg iinn OOvveenn
A Afftteerr RReeaacchhiinngg TTeemmppeerraattuurree
500 o F .................................................................. Unlimited 600
o F ................................................................... 30 hours 700 o F ................................................................... 10 hours 800 o F ..................................................................... 6 hours 900 o F ..................................................................... 2 hours
T Thheerrmmooccoouuppllee TTyyppeess UUsseedd iinn EExxttrruussiioonn PPllaannttss
Type J:
Iron-Constantan I/C one wire silver and one wire bronze in color
Iron: Magnetic Positive White
Constantan: Non-magnetic Negative Red
Type K:
Chromel/Alumel C/A both wires silver in color
Chromel: Non-magnetic Positive Yellow
Alumel: Magnetic Negative Red
Note: Thermocouple lead wire must be located in a dry, grounded, steel conduit and
separated from power wiring. Do not use wire-pulling lubricant.
xx
G Glloossssaarryy ooff TTeerrmmss ffoorr PPrreessss CCoommppoonneennttss
Press Base or Bedplate : a welded structure, it is designed to accurately position and support the
press structure. It is precisely leveled, anchored, and grouted to the concrete press foundation.
Main Cylinder : the hydraulic cylinder, normally cast or forged steel, incorporates the Main
Cylinder Flange , also sometimes called the Main Cylinder Platen ; other Main Cylinder parts
include the Main Cylinder Bearing Bushing and Main Cylinder Packing system.
Main Ram : the piston of the main hydraulic cylinder.
Crosshead (or Moving Crosshead ): mounted on the Main Ram , the Crosshead is fitted with the
Extrusion Stem , and with guide shoes to guide the main ram travel along the Guide Ways.
Crosshead Cylinders or Pullback Cylinders : for rapid pull-back of the main ram at speeds not
possible using main cylinder action alone; mounted on the Main Cylinder housing or Platen.
Extrusion Stem or Ram Stem : pushes the billet through the Container. Various mounting
designs are used to permit precise adjustment and alignment of the stem. To avoid sticking or
“welding” to the billet, a Dummy Block is fixed to the nose of the stem. Older presses used Loose
Dummy Blocks , mechanically fed into position with each bullet, then removed, separated, and
recycled. Today almost all presses incorporate Fixed Dummy Blocks mounted on the Stem.
Guide Ways : for guiding the Moveable Crosshead and Container , although many presses use
separate guide systems for each. Guide ways are usually mounted on the Press Frame or
Bedplate , or on the Columns or Tie-Rods.
Tie Rods or Columns : operating in tension, these restrain the extrusion force between the Main
Cylinder Platen and Front or Resistance Platen. The most common designs are: threaded
tension rods with 4 nuts per rod (2 at each platen); threaded rods with fixed sleeves between
platens; and laminated plates or bars.
Platen (also Front Platen or Resistance Platen ): cast or forged steel, it provides support for
extrusion tooling and so is designed for minimum deflection under load. It incorporates also the
Pressure Ring , a replaceable precision segment designed for extremely precise support of the
Tooling Stack.
Tooling Stack or Die Stack : includes the die , die backer , bolster , die ring , and other spacers as
may be required to adapt a particular die to the standardized overall Tooling Stack dimensions for
the particular press.
Die Changer : a device for rapid changing of dies. Common designs include:
- single die changer : the simplest system, it holds only one tooling stack at a time.
- double die slide : holds two tooling stacks, allowing advance set-up of the next set
during extrusion and therefore faster die changes; but one pocket must be loaded
from the far side of the press, away from the press operator’s position.
- unistation die changer : also allows advance set-up and quick changes, fully
accessible from the operator side of the press; dies are exchanged in a “shuttle”
motion.
- rotostation die changer : similar to unistation, except a turntable rotates for
exchanging die carriers.
- gate lock : on very old presses, dies are removed and reinserted through the front
platen, then locked in place with a “gate lock” device, which also absorbs the
resistance forces.
xxii
Identification of Press Components
xxiii
