counseling theory cheat sheet, Cheat Sheet of Career Counseling

Download counseling theory cheat sheet and more Cheat Sheet Career Counseling in PDF only on Docsity! Theories of Counseling A. Psychoanalytical Theory (Sigmund Freud) 1. View of Human Nature a. ure is considered to be dynamic, meaning that there is an exchange of energy and transformation. Freud used the term catharsis to describe this release of this energy . b. Freud saw the personality as composed of a conscious mind, a preconscious mind and an unconscious mind. The conscious mind has knowledge of what is happening in the present. The preconscious mind contains information from both the unconscious and the conscious mind. The unconscious mind contains hidden or forgotten memories or experiences . 2. Structure of Personality a. The personality has three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego b. The id is present at birth and is part of the unconscious. The id is the site of the pleasure principle, the tendency of an individual to move toward pleasure and away from pain. The id does not have a sense of right or wrong, is impulsive, and is not rational. It contains the most basic of human instincts, drives, and genetic endowments. . c. The ego is the second system to develop and it functions primarily in the conscious mind and in the preconscious mind. It serves as a moderator between the id and the superego, controlling wishes and desires. The ego is the site of the reality principle, the ability to interact with the outside world with appropriate goals and activities . d. The superego sets the ideal standards and morals for the individual. The superego operates on the moral principle which rewards the individual for following parental and societal dictates. Guilt is produced when a person violates the ideal ego denying or ignoring the rules of the superego .     3. Developmental Stages . a. Oral stage is centered on the mouth as a source of pleasure. b. Anal stage is centered on the anus and elimination as a source of pleasure. c. Phallic stage is centered on the genitals and sexual identification as a source of pleasure. i. Oedipus Complex is described as the process whereby a boy desires his mother and fears castration from the father, in order to create an ally of the father, the male learns traditional male roles. ii. Electra Complex is described a similar but less clearly resolved in the female child with her desire for the father, competition with the mother;; and thus, learns the traditional female roles. d. Latency stage view. This stage is characterized with peer activities, academic and social learning, and development of physical skills. e. Genital stage begins with the onset of puberty. If the other stages have been successfully negotiated, the young person will take an interest in and establish sexual relationships.   4. Ego Defense Mechanisms a. were believed by Freud to protect the individual from being overwhelmed by anxiety. He considered them normal and operating on the unconscious level. Some of the ones most often referred to are: i. Repression is the defense mechanism whereby the ego excludes any painful or undesirable thoughts, memories, feelings or impulses from the conscious ii. Projection is the defense mechanism whereby the individual assigns their own undesirable emotions and characteristics to another individual iii. Reaction Formation is the defense mechanism whereby the individual expresses the opposite emotion, feeling or impulse than that which causes anxiety iv. Displacement a defense mechanism whereby the energy that is generated toward a potentially dangerous or inappropriate target is refocused to a safe target. e. Another concept is that of teleology, which simply put means that a person is as influenced by future goals as by past experiences . f. Adlerian espoused the belief that the birth of each child changed the family substantially. He thought that the birth order of the children in the family influenced many aspects of their personality development. Briefly, characteristics of these birth positions are: i. Oldest children are usually high achievers, parent pleasers, conforming, and are well behaved. ii. Second born children are more outgoing, less anxious, and less constrained by rules than first borns. They usually excel as what the first born does not. iii. Middle children have a feeling of being squeezed in and are concerned with perceived unfair treatment. These children learn to excel in family politics and negotiation. However, they can become very manipulative. This position also tends to develop areas of success that are not enjoyed by their siblings. iv. The youngest child is the most apt at pleasing or entertaining the family. While they run the risk of being spoiled, they are also the most apt at getting what they want through their social skills and ability to please. They are often high achievers, because of the role models of their older siblings. g. Only children or children born seven or more years apart from siblings are more like first born children. Children with no siblings often take on the characteristics of their parents birth order, as the parents are the only role models. While these children may mature early and be high achievers, they may lack socialization skills, expect pampering, and be selfish. h. Adler saw the family as the basic socialization unit for the child. He interpretation of the events in their life was determined by the interaction with family members before the age of five. The family interactions taught the children to perceive events and situations through certain subjective evaluations of themselves and the called fictions. Basic mistakes could be made based on these fictions. Adlerians believe that some of those mistakes are (Mozak, 1984): i. Over-­generalizing in which the individual believes that everything is the same or alike. ii. False or impossible goals of security which leads the individual to try to please everyone in seeking security and avoiding danger. iii individual to expect more accommodation than is reasonable and to interpret their failure to get accommodation as never getting any breaks. iv. Minimization or den believing that they cannot be successful in life. v. Faulty values results in a "me first" mentality with little or no regard for others. vi. Adler believed that life took courage or a willingness to take risks without knowing the outcome. He believed that a person with a healthy life style contributed to society, had meaningful work, and had intimate relationships. He espoused cooperation between the genders as opposed to competition. He believed that well adjusted people lived in an interdependent relationship with others in a cooperative spirit . 2. Role of the counselor a. The counselor is as a diagnostician, teacher and model. The counselor helps the client to explore conscious thoughts, beliefs and logic for client-­counselor relationship is an equal one with the counselor sharing insights, impressions, opinions, and feelings with the client to promote the therapeutic relationship. Therapy is very cognitive with an emphasis on the examination of faulty logic and empowering the client to take responsibility to change through a re-­educational process. The counselor encourages the client to behave "as if" the client were who they wised to be and often provides the client with "homework" assignments outside the sessions. Adlerians are eclectic in technique with an emphasis on encouragement and responsibility . 3. Goals of Adlerian counseling a. Goals focus on helping the client develop a healthy lifestyle and social interest. The counselor assists the client through four goals of the therapeutic process, establishing a therapeutic relationship, examining the style of life, developing client insight, and changing behavior. The behavior change is the result of the individual taking personal responsibility for behavior . 4. Techniques a. Most commonly used are establishing rapport, defining style of life and helping the client to gain insight. While Adlerians may borrow many techniques from other theories, specific theories used to encourage change are . b. Confrontation behavior. c. Asking "the Question" consists of asking the client how their life would be different if they were well? The question often asked to parents is what would be the problem if this child were not the problem? d. Encouragement consists of the counselor supporting the client by behavior. e. Acting "as if" consists of instructing the client to behave "as if" there were no problem or as the person that the client would like to be. f. means that the counselor points out the havior. Afterward, the client may continue the behavior, but cannot do so without being aware of their motivation for engaging in the behavior. g. Catching oneself consist of helping the client learn to bring destructive behavior into awareness and stop it. h. Task setting consists of helping the client set short-­term goals leading toward the attainment of long-­term goals.     C. Person-­ Centered (Carl Rogers) 1. View of Human Nature a. Rogers viewed human nature as basically good b. He believed that if given the appropriate environment of acceptance, warmth and empathy, the individual would move toward self-­ actualization 1. View of Human Nature a. Existentialists believe that the individual writes their own life story by the choices that they make. b. Psychopathology is defined by existentialists as neglecting to make c. Anxiety is seen as the motivational force that helps the clients to reach their potential. Conversely, anxiety is also seen as the paralyzing force that prevents clients from reaching their full potential. Therefore, through awareness, this anxiety can be helpful in living more fully d. Frankl shares that each person searches for meaning in life, and that while this meaning may change, the meaning never ceases to be. e. i.by doing a deed (accomplishments or achievements), ii. by experiencing a value (beauty, love, nature, and arts) iii. by suffering (reconciling ourselves to fate. 2. Role of the Counselor a. Each client is considered a unique relationship with the counselor focusing on being authentic with the client and entering into a deep personal sharing relationship b. The counselor models how to be authentic, to realize personal potential, and to make decisions with emphasis on mutuality, wholeness and growth. c. Existential counselors do not diagnosis, nor do they use assessment models like the DSM-­IV. 3. Goals a. A goal of existential counseling is to have the clients take responsibility for their life and life decisions. b. A goal of existential therapy is to develop self-­awareness to promote potential, freedom, and commitment to better life choices c. A major goal is to help the client develop an internal frame of reference, as opposed to the outward one . 4. Techniques a. The most common technique used in existential counseling is the relationship with the client . b. Confrontation is also used by existential counselors, when they challenge the clients with their own responsibility for their lives E. Gestalt (Fritz Perls) 1. View of Human Nature a. A Gestalt means a whole, and Gestalt therapy is based on the person feeling whole or complete in their life b. Gestalt therapy is considered to be a here-­and-­now therapy focusing on awareness with the belief that when one focuses on what they are and not what they wish to become, they become self-­actualized. The idea being that through self acceptance one becomes self-­actualized c. The Gestaltists believe that the individual naturally seeks to become an integrated whole, living productively d. Gestaltists are antideterministic because they believe that people have the ability to change and become responsible e. Gestalt borrows heavily from the viewpoints of existenitalist, experientialist, and phenomenologicalist with the emphasis on the present interpretation and assessment of the present life situation f. Gestaltists believe that individuals emphasize intellectual experience, diminishing the importance of emotions and senses, resulting in an inability to respond to the situations or events in their life g. Gestaltists believe that thoughts, feelings, and reactions to past events or situations can impede personal functioning and prevent here-­and-­now awareness. The most common unfinished business is that of not forgiving h. Awareness is considered on a continuum with the healthiest person being most aware. These people are aware of their needs and deal with them one at a time. The emphasis in on reality and not on embellished or imagined needs. The individual recognizes their internal need and meets that need through manipulation of the need and the environment i. Difficulty may arise in several ways .: i. Loss of contact with the environment and its resources. ii.. Loss of contact with self through over involvement with environment. iii. Fail to put aside unfinished business. iv. Loss the Gestalt resulting in fragmentation or scattering. v. Experience conflict between what one should do and what one wants to do. vi Experience diff , i.e. love/hate, pleasure pain, masculinity/femininity. 2. Role of the Counselor a. The counselor creates an environment for the client to explore their needs in order to grow. b. The counselor is fully with the client in the here-­and-­now with intense personal involvement and honesty. c. The counselor helps the client to focus on blocking energy and to positively and adaptively use that energy. d. The counselor also helps the clients to discern life patterns. e. Among the rules that counselors use to help client: i. The principle of the now requires the counselor to use present tense. ii. I and Thou means that the client must address the person directly rather than talk about them or to the counselor about them. iii. Making the client use the I instead of referring to own experiences in the second (you) or third (it) person. iv. The use of an awareness continuum that focuses on how and what rather than on why. v. The counselor has the client convert questions into statements. vi. DSM-­IV categories and standardized assessment is not considered necessary within this theory (Gladding, 19960. vii. Running away from difficulties and responsibilities is easier than facing them. viii. A person must depend on others and must have someone stronger on whom to rely. ix. changed. x. A person should be upset by the problems and difficulties of others. xi. There is always a right answer to every problem, and a failure to find this answer is a catastrophe. d. Ellis sees the individual as being easily disturbed because of gullibility and suggestibility e. Ellis is a proponent of the individual thinking of their behavior as separate from their personhood, i.e. "I did a bad thing" rather than "I am a bad person." f. Ellis believes that each individual has the ability to control their thoughts, feelings and their actions. In order to gain this control, a person must first understand what they are telling themselves (self-­talk) about the event or situation . g. Ellis believes that cognitions about events or situations can be of four types: positive, negative, neutral, or mixed. These cognitions result in like thoughts with positive leading to positive thoughts, negative leading to negative thoughts, etc. 2. Role of the Counselor a. Counselors are direct and active in their teaching and correcting the b. Ellis believes that a good RET counselor must be bright, knowledgeable, empathetic, persistent, scientific, interested in helping others and use RET in their personal lives (Ellis, 1980). c. The counselor does not rely heavily on the DSM-­IV categories . 3. Goals a. The primary goal is to help people live rational and productive lives b. RET helps people see that it is their thoughts and beliefs about events that creates difficulties, not the events or situations themselves c. RET helps the client to understand that wishes and wants are not entitlements to be demanded. Thinking that involves the words must, should, ought, have to, and need are demands, not an expression of wants or desires. d. RET helps clients stop catastrophizing when wants and desires are not met e. RET stresses the appropriateness of the emotional response to the situation or event. An situation or event need not elicit more of a response than is appropriate f. RET assists people in changing self-­defeating behaviors or cognitions g. RET espouses acceptance and tolerance of self and of others in order to achieve life goals 4. Techniques a. The first few sessions are devoted to learning the ABC principle: i. Activating event ii. Belief or thought process iii. Emotional Consequences b. Cognitive disputation is aimed at asking the client questions challenging the c. Imaginal disputation has the client use imagery to examine a situation where the become upset. The technique is used in one of two ways: i.The client imagines the situation, examines the self-­talk, and then changes the self-­talk leading to a more moderate response. ii.The client imagines a situation in which they respond differently than is habitual, and are asked to examine the self-­talk in this imagery. d. The Emotional Control Card is an actual card intended for the client to carry in their wallet which has a list of inappropriate or self-­destructive feelings countered with appropriate nondefeating feelings. In a difficult situation, the client has this reference card on their person to help them intervene in their own self-­talk e. Behavioral disputation involves having the client behave in a way that is opposite to the way they would like to respond to the event or situation f. Confrontation occurs when the counselor challenges an illogical or irrational belief that the client is expressing g. Encouragement involves explicitly urging the client to use RET rather than to continue self-­defeating responses G. Transactional Analysis (Eric Berne) 1. View of Human Nature a. T.A. has a optimistic view of human nature that believes that people can life. All decisions that are made in life can be re-­decided b. TA uses four major methods to analyze and predict behavior: i. Structural analysis looks at what is happening within the individual. ii. Transactional analysis looks at what is happening between two or more people. iii. Game analysis looks at transactions between individuals leading to negative feelings. iv. Script analysis looks at the life plan the individual has chosen to follow. c. Structural Analysis describes each person in terms of three ego states: i. Parent ego state contains the parental admonishments and values with dos, shoulds, and oughts ii. Adult ego state contains the objective, thinking, rational and logical ability to deal with reality iii. Child ego state is the source of childlike behaviors and feelings d. Transactional analysis i. Complementary transaction are characterized by both people communicating from the same ego state ii. Crossed transactions are characterized by both people coming from different ego states and resulting in an unexpected hurtful response. d. Behaviorists believe that adaptive behavior can be learned to replace maladaptive behavior e. Behaviorists believe in setting up well-­defined, measurable and observable goals in therapy f. Behaviorists reject the idea that human personality is composed of traits g. Behaviorists strive for empirical evidence to support their use of specific techniques and to support the usage of behavioral therapy techniques h. Respondent learning is often referred to as stimulus-­response learning in which the learner does not need to be an active participant. The outcome is the conditioning of involuntary responses. The unlearning of these conditioned responses is called counterconditioning i. Operant conditioning requires that the participant be actively involved. This type of learning involves rewarding the desired behavior or punishing the undesired behavior until the person learns to discriminate the desired behavior that elicits the reward. Operant conditioning differs from respondent conditioning in that operant conditioning is the conditioning of voluntary responses through rewards or reinforces j. Social modeling is the process where new behavior is learned from watching other people and events without experiencing the consequences from the behavior or engaging in the behavior 2. Role of the Counselor a. Roles of the behavioral counselor are varies and include being a consultant, a reinforcer, and a facilitator b environment to achieve the goals of therapy c. Counselors using social learning may model the desired behavior, while respondent and operant conditioning counselors are more directive and prescriptive in their approach to the therapy goals d. Use of tests and diagnosis varied greatly among behavioral counselors 3. Goals a. The goal of behaviorists counselors like other theories is to improve the life of the client through better adjustments to life and to achieve personal goals professionally and personally . b.Four steps in developing therapeutic goals are .: i.Define the problem concretely specifying when, where, how and with whom the problem exists. ii. Take a developmental history of the problem eliciting conditions surrounding the beginning of the problem and what solutions the client has tried in the past. iii. Establish specific subgoals in small incremental steps toward the final goal. iv.Determine the best behavioral method to be used help the client change. 4. Techniques a. Reinforcers increase the desired behaviors, when they follow the behavior. b.Reinforcers can be negative or positive. Positive reinforcers are those that are desired by the client;; while negative reinforcers are contingencies to be avoided. Primary reinforcers are those that are intrinsically;; while secondary reinforcers are tokens that aquire their value by being associated with a primary reinforcer . c. Schedules of Reinforcement i. Fixed-­ratio means that the reinforcer is delivered after a set number of responses . ii. Fixed-­interval means that the reinforcer is delivered after a set time lapses . iii. Variable-­ration means that the reinforcer is delivered after varying numbers of responses . iv. A variable-­interval means that the reinforcer is delivered at varying time intervals . b. Shaping is learning behavior in small steps that are successive approximations toward the final desired behavior. Chaining is the order of the desired sequence of skills leading to the desired behavior . c. Generalization is the transfer of the learnings from the behavioral therapy room to the outside world . d. Maintenance is the consistent continuation of learned behaviors without support -­control and self-­management . e. Extinction is the elimination of a behavior through withholding a reinforcer f. Punishment is the delivery of aversive stimuli resulting in suppressing ro eliminating a behavior . g.Behavioral rehearsal is the of repeating and improving a behavior until the client accomplishes the behavior that is desired . h. Environmental planning is a process where the client arranges the circumstances to promote or inhibit particular behaviors . i. Systematic desensitization a process accomplished through successive approximations to reduce anxiety toward an anxiety provoking event or situation. The steps needed to accomplish the behavior are listed and prioritized from no anxiety to most anxiety. The hierarchy is reviewed with the counselor helping the client to learn relaxation techniques to reduce or overcome anxiety. As a client cannot feel anxious and relaxed at the same time, the phenomenon is termed reciprocal inhibition. Through this process, the client can ultimately perform the desired behavior . j. Assertiveness training is a technique where the client is taught to express their appropriate feelings without hostility, anxiety, or passivity. The actual training may include all of the other behavioral techniques to achieve the desired behaviors . k. Contingency contracts are written agreements in which the desired behaviors are specifically described, what reinforcers are to be given and under what circumstances the reinforcers will be administered to the client. Contingency contracts are most often used in working with children . l. Implosion is having the client desensitized by imagining a anxiety provoking situation that may have a dire consequences. Flooding is similar except the anticipated outcome of the anxiety provoking situation is not dire. This technique is contraindicated for use by beginning counselors . m. Time out is an aversive technique where the client is prevented, usually through some form of isolation, from receiving a positive reinforcer. n. Overcorrection is an aversive technique where the client is required to restore the environment and to improve it substantially . o. Covert sensitization is an aversive technique where a behavior is eliminated by pairing its association with an unpleasant thought . p. Cognitive restructuring is helping the clients change how they think about an event or situation by examining their thoughts and challenging the irrational or self-­defeating thoughts . q. Stress inoculation is a three step preventive technique .: r. Define the nature of stress and coping for the client. s. Teach specific stress reduction and coping skills to expand those stress and coping skills the client already uses. t. The client practices these new skills outside of the therapy room in real life situations u. Thought stopping is a series of procedures which help the client to replace self-­defeating thoughts with assertive, positive or neutral thoughts. The initial procedure is one in which the counselor asks the client to think obsessively in a self defeating manner, then suddenly and unexpectedly yells, "stop." The client cannot continue the self-­defeating thoughts after this disruption . vi. Not accepting excuses. vii. Allowing reasonable consequences but refusing to use punishment. viii. Refusing to give up on the client. ix. . The preceding material was outlined from the following text: Gladding, S.T. (1996). A. Consultation 1. The Stages of Consultation (Daugherty, 1995) a. The first stage is called the entry because it is the point at which the consultant enters the organization and/or relationship. During this stage the relationship is built, the problem and its parameters are defined, a contract is agreed upon, and contact with the consultees are made. This stage establishes the foundation for the remainder stages. 1. The consultant explores the organizations needs (Dougherty, 2. Should consultation take place? 3. Why am I here? 4. Who are you? 5. What is likely to happen? 6. What will be the result? 7. What can go wrong? i. Phase 2: A contract is developed to agree upon consultation, fees, expectations of participants, and deadlines. The elements of a contract include (Gallessich 1982 1. general goals of consultation;; 2. tentative time frame;; 3. 4. services to be provided 5. methods to be used 6. time to be committed to the agency 7. evaluation of the degree to which goals are achieved 8. 9. nature and extent of staff contributions to consultation, 10. fees to be paid to consultant, including expenses;; 11. 12. the contact person to whom the consultant is to be responsible. 13. people to whom the consultant is to have access (and those who are out of bounds) 14. documents, 15. conditions for bringing in other consultants or trainees, 16. confidentiality rules regarding all information;; 17. arrangements for periodic review and evaluation of the terminate the contract if consultation progress is unsatisfactory. ii. .Phase 3: The consultant physically enters the organization and begins contact with consultees iii Phase 4: The consultant psychologically enters into the system by establishing rapport and the relationship and minimizes resistance. b. Stage two is the diagnosis stage. The problem is examined more in depth than in the entry stage. The consultant and the consultee establish goals and generate method to meet these goals (Dougherty, 1995). i. Phase 1: Gathers information. 1. Decide to proceed. 2.Select dimensions. 3. Decide the personnel to be involved in data collection. 4. Select data collection methods. Possible types of data to be collected are: 5. genetic data or common information. 6. descriptive data 7. process data 8. interpretative data 9. consultee-­client system relationship data 10. client system behavior data ii. Phase 2: Defines the problem. iii. Phase 3: Sets goals. iv. Phase 4: Generate interventions. c. Stage three is called the implementation. The emphasis in on taking action and planning (Dougherty, 1995). i. Phase 1: Choose an intervention. 1. Individual Interventions 2. Consultee-­centered case consultation 3. Problem-­solving/decision making education/training 4. Stress management 5. Cognitive restructuring 6. Stress inoculation training 7. Transactional analysis 8. Coaching and counseling 9. Life-­ and career-­planning activities 10. Sensitivity training 11. Dyadic and triadic interventions 12. Activities to increase effectiveness 13. Third-­party peacemaking 14. Groups and Team Interventions 15. Team building involves improving the teams functioning by examining and evaluating the interactions among the team members. h. Purchase of Expertise Model essentially for this model to be successful the consultee knows what the problem is, how to solve it, and who can be of help. The most frequently used approach in this model is the education/training consultation, where the consultees are given information and taught skills. i. Doctor-­Patient Model in this model the consultee knows that something is wrong, but cannot identify it. The consultant diagnoses the problem and then prescribes a solution. j. Process Model involves the consultant and consultee forming a team to define the problem and explore solutions to the problem. C. Mental Health Consultation a. Mental health consultation is process consulting between professionals to assist in the mental health aspects of work-­related problems that concerns the client or the organization (Dougherty, 1995). 1. Key concepts (Dougherty, 1995) b. Consultation between two professionals in respect to a client or program. c. The consultee defines the problem as being mental health related problem of the client and the consultant has the expert knowledge to help. d. The consultant has no administrative responsibility or professional case. The consultant is not e. suggestions. f. The consultant and the consultee are equal in the relationship. g. The relationship is improved by consultant and consultee having agency. h. The consultant usually meets only a few times with the consultee individually and does not encourage a dependent relationship with continuing contact beyond the current concern. In group consultation, the independence of its members is encouraged by the peer support. i. Consultation is expected to continue throughout the professional life of the consultee as the consultee becomes more sophisticated and competent. j. The consultant does not have an agenda of information to be given to the consultee, but simply assists in the areas that the consultee requests. k. The two goals of the consultation is to help the consultee with the current problem and how to approach future similar concerns. l. The aim of the consultation is to help the consultee to improve their job performance. m. Consultation is not intended to be therapy for the consultee, but if a personal issue effect the consul personal issues are discussed. n. Consultation is provided by a person with a training specialty. o. This form of consultation is a type of communication between the mental health specialist and other professionals. p. Psychodynamic Orientation used by the Caplan model is based on the concept that behavior is a product of unconscious motivation. The childhood experiences of the consultee may create issues that result in inner conflicts that govern behavior. The consultant does not deal with these issues directly, but rather through indirect methods (Daugherty, 1995). q. Transfer effect is the concept that something that is learned in one situation will be transferred or used in other similar situations. Transfer of r. "One-­Downmanship" is the descriptions of the relationship in which the consultant stays in an equal or peer relationship with the consultee. 2. Types of Consultation (Daugherty, 1995) a. Focuses on a case b. client-­centered case consultation c. consultee-­centered case consultation d. Focuses on administrative problems. e. program-­centered administrative consultation f. consultee-­centered administrative consultation 3. The Consultation Process (Daugherty, 1995). a. Client-­Centered Case Consultation Process i. Goals include helping the consultee to develop a interventions plan and to gain information and/or skills to help in future similar cases. ii. The consultant services as an expert in assessment, diagnosis, iii. relationship in which the consultant provides information, opinions, collaboration, and recommendations to the consultee about the case. The consultee is free to accept and/or adapt the iv. Application usually requires a written letter or report. b. Consultee-­Centered Case Consultation Process (Daugherty, 1995) i. The primary goal is to help the consultee to overcome shortcomings in working with a particular type or class of clients. ii. The function of the consultant is to be more directive in the training or self-­exploration needed to help the consultee help the client. iii. the case, but who seeks to broaden and enrich their understanding and emotional mastery of the case. iv. In application, four types of intervention are used: 1. Education to help with lack of knowledge. 2. Training to help with lack of skills 3. Support and encouragement to provide self-­confidence. 4. Provides an objective perspective of the case. Areas that may cause the consultee to lose the objectivity are: vi.Simple identification with the client. 1. Transference where the consultee attributes emotions and attitudes to the client. 2. Characterological distortions where minor disturbances in the consultee prevent them clearly. 3. Theme interference is best explained by the consultee experiencing blocking with the client. c. The Program-­Centered Administrative Consultation Process (Daugherty, 1995) i. The consultant enters the organization and consults with the administrator concerning the functioning of the organization and makes recommendations in writing. ii. The consultant functions in the role of data-­collector, action-­ plannner, and communicator to accurately and clearly present the findings and recommendations to the administration and its representatives. iii. The consultee usually initiates the process and is the person that the consultant provides with the recommendations and the written report. Basically, the consultee is the primary resource for information and the receiver of what the consultant disseminates. iv. The consultant provides services in a written form as determined by the contract with the principal consultee. d. The Consultee-­Centered Administrative Consultation Process (Daugherty 1995) i. -­level personnel to problem solve in personnnel management or implementation of organizational policy. adaptations using a systems approach. The approach generally follows the generic model first presented in this review (Daugherty, 1995). b. Consulting with Teachers may include enhancing professional skills and to assist in the psychoeducational interventions (Daugherty, 1995). i. Adlerian Consultation is based on four assumptions: 1. Students must take responsibility for their behavior. 2. Encouragement is more powerful than praise. 3. Failure is 4. Affective needs of students is an important as the cognitive needs of students. c. Instructional consultation is used to improve or train teachers in new models for instruction. d. Consulting with Parents include consulting with parents about their children on an individual basis or consulting with parents through providing parent education/training (Daugherty, 1995). e. Pragmatic issues in School-­Based Consultation include (Daugherty, 1995): i. Ethical issues, especially informed consent and confidentiality. ii. Training issues especially the lack of formal training for consultation for school supervisors. iii. Working with other school-­based consultants include both the opportunity for collaboration and for conflict among the consultants. iv. Unique school-­based interventions can include such things as teacher support groups, media programs, and focused problem prevention themes or units. v. Systems view of the school is a difficult one for the school to implement as it entails changes in communication between the home and the school. f. Developing a framework for prevention and intervention. i. The empowerment model is more often used to encourage the teacher to seek and answer problems as opposed to the problem solving model used in other types of consultation. ii. Time constraints tend to provide difficulties as there is little free time for parents and teachers to receive consultation. iii. Cultural change involves changing the culture or environment within and without the school setting. This concept is not so much a diversity issue as an environmental and organizational change. A. Helping Models 1. The Skilled Helper (Gerard Egan) a. Basic Communication Skills (Egan, 1994) i. Attending (SOLER) 1. Face the client Squarely. 2. Adopt an Open posture. 3. Remember to Lean toward the other. 4. Maintain Eye contact. 5. Appear Relaxed. ii. Active listening iii. Nonverbal behavior as communication iv. Bodily behavior i.e. posture, body shifts and gestures. v. Voice-­related behavior, i.e. tone, pitch, volume, intensity. vii. Observable automatic physiological responses, i.e. breathing, flushing, blushing, paleness, pupil dilation. b. Physical characteristics, i.e. level of fitness, height, weight, complexion, etc. i. General appearance, i.e. grooming, clothing choice c. Nonverbal behavior as punctuation i. Confirming or repeating what is verbally said. ii. Denying or confusing what is said verbally. iii. Strengthening or emphasizing what is verbally being said. iv. Controlling or regulation verbal responses. v. Verbally listen to the expressed 1. experiences 2. behaviors 3. affect d. e. Listen for the distortions or misperceptions of self the client may have. f. Obstacles and distractions to active listening are: i. Inadequate listening. ii. Evaluative listening iii. Filtered listening iv. Labeling used as a filter for listening. v. Fact-­centered rather than client centered listening vi. next as opposed to just hearing the client. vii. Sympathetic listening (involves feeling sorry for the client and allowing those feelings to prevent the counselor from being helpful). g. I but can be useful when used to refocus the client or assure the client of understanding. h. Empathy is the ability to draw from your own experiences, emotions and behaviors and making a response to the client that indicates an shared i. Search for Core Messages j. the appropriate level of intensity and emotions). k. Experiences and behaviors are expressed by the addition of "because" to l. and/or nonverbal behaviors. m. Uses of Empathy i. Build the relationship. ii. Stimulate self-­exploration iii. Check understandings. iv. Provide support. v. Lubricate communication. vi. Focus attention. vii. Restrain the helper. viii. Pave the way. n. Responses that Indicate a lack of Empathy are: i. Failure to respond at all. ii. A question iii. A Cliché iv. An interpretation v. Advice vi. Parroting vii. Sympathy and agreement viii. Probing 1. Probes do not have to be questions they can be statements that encourage the client to talk or to clarify. 2. Probes can be interjections that help the client to focus. o. Questions can help the clients to talk more freely and concretely. Questions should follow these guidelines: i. Do not ask two many questions. ii. Ask questions that serve that serve a purpose. iii. Ask open-­ended questions that help clients talk about specific experiences, behaviors and feelings. iv. Questions should keep the focus on the clients and their interests. v. Ask questions that help clients get into the stages and steps of the helping model. 2. Stages of Counseling (Egan, 1994) ii. body language (face squarely, lean forward slightly, have a pleasnat expression, use facilitative gestures) iii. vocal qualities (tone and speech rate indicating a positive attitude toward client) iv. verbal tracking skills (keeping to the topic that the client indicates). b. Open and closed questions (Ivey, 1994) i. Questions help begin the interview ii. Open questions help elaborate and enrich the interview iii. Questions help bring out concrete spe iv. Questions are critical in the diagnosis and assessment of a problem v. First word of open questions many times with result in predictable outcomes. vi. What leads to facts vii. How leads to discussion of processes and sequences. viii. Why leads to discussion of reasons. ix. x. Questions have certain potential problems 1. Bombardment/grilling 2. Multiple questions or a series of questions at once. 3. Questions that are statements of opinion of the counselor. 4. Cultural differences sometimes makes questions inappropriate. xi. Why questions make people defensive 1. Questions used to control xii. Questions can be used to monitor the comfort and pace of the interview. c. Client observation skills (Ivey, 1994) i. Nonverbal behavior ii. Verbal behavior iii. Discrepancies d. Encouraging, Paraphasing and summarization (Ivey, 1994) i. Encouragers are those gestures, comments, or nonverbal gestures that prompt the client to continue talking. ii. iii. Summarizations are used to help the client organize their thinking. e. Reflections of feeling (Ivey, 1994) 7. Five-­stage interview structure (Ivey, 1994) a. Rapport/structuring b. Defining the problem c. Defining a goal d. Exploration of alternatives and confronting incongruity e. Generalization to daily life. 8. Confrontation (Ivey, 1994) a. Identify incgruities and mixed messages. b. Work toward the resolution of incongruity and mixed messages c. Evaluating the change process 9. Focusing (Ivey, 1994) a. Focus on the client b. Focus on the main theme or problem. c. Focus on others. d. Focus on mutual issues or group. e. Focus on interviewer. f. Focus on cultural/environmental/contextual issues. 10. Reflection of Meaning (Ivey, 1994) a. Influencing skills and strategies (Ivey, 1994) b. Developmental questioning skills (helps the client discuss their issues from different cognitive/emotional orientations) c. Directives (the interviewer clearly indicates what they want the client to do) d. e. Interpretation/reframe (gives the client another point of view to a life situation) f. Self-­disclosure (sharing of thoughts and feeling between client and counselor) g. Advice/information/explanation/instruction (gives information to the client) h. Feedback (gives the client accurate data on how the counselor or others may view the client) B. The Facilitative Model (Wittmer & Myrick) 1. Guidelines for effective listening (Wittmer & Myrick, 1980): a. Look directly at the person who is speaking. b. Avoid being preoccupied with your won thoughts. c. Listen to more that just what is being spoken. d. Indicated that you are listening and following the conversation and try to keep the person talking. e. Do not evaluate or judge a person. 2. Facilitative Responses (Wittmer & Myrick, 1980) from the lowest ranked responses to the highest ranked responses: a. Advising or Evaluating i. Advising responses tell a person what they should do in the way of feeling or behaving. ii. Evaluating statements convey the correctness or lack of correctness of a behavior or feeling. b. Analyzing and Interpreting i. These responses have the intention of explaining behaviors or feelings. They may also try to connect one event with another so as to give insights, to teach, or to bring special meanings into focus. The responses imply what the client should think or do. c. Reassuring and Supporting i. While the intention is to indicate to the client a belief in his/her ability to solve the problem, the response can also imply that the client should not feel as he/she does feel. These responses tend to dismiss the client's feelings and indicate a lack of concern on the part of the counselor. d. Questioning i. A question seeks more information, provokes further discussion, or queries an individual about a specific matter. Several types of questions are considered in this response category. 1. Least Person-­Centered Questions are those that can be painful or threatening making the individual feel inadequate. These questions can pull the focus away from the concern at hand. 2. Binding Question is one that is asked in such a way that there is no alternative to answers. 3. Soliciting Agreement Question suggests that one answer would not provoke an argument or disagreement. 4. Forced Choice Question is one that usually contains an "either-­or" statement and forces the respondent to choose. 5. Double Bind Question provides within itself a judgment of the client no matter how the client responds to the question. 6. "Why" question lacks sensitivity and intimidates the client. 7. Most person-­centered question keeps the focus on the client and solicits communication in response to the counselor's interest. 8. Open questions encourages the client to talk freely. 9. The closed question usually requires a yes or no answer. e. Clarifying and Summarizing g. Women are affected by heredity, while men are affected by environment. h. Women lack achievement motivation. i. Women are more fearful, timid, and anxious. j. Women are passive and men are active. k. Women are less competitive. l. Women are more compliant. m. Women are more nurturing. n. Women are more emotional. o. Women are less aggressive than men. p. Women are better at verbal ability. Men are better at mathematical ability. q. Guidelines for nonsexist counseling include: r. s. Realize that there are no prescribed sex-­role behaviors. t. Reversals of traditional sex-­roles is not pathological. u. Marriage is not a better outcome of therapy for a female than for a male. v. Women can be as autonomous and assertive as men;; and men, can be expressive and tender as women. w. Anatomical differences are not a basis for theories of behavior. x. Failure to achieve culturally prescribed sex-­role behaviors is not a basis for diagnosis. y. Testing instruments that are sexually biased are not used. 3. Ethnic Groups and Cross-­Cultural Counseling (Gibson & Mitchell, 1995) a. Many culturally different populations do not wish to be acculturated and lose their cultural identity. b. Nondirective counseling techniques and role of the counselor is inconsistent with the expectations and values of some minority groups. c. Failure and ineffectiveness in the literature have been found to exist in the following areas for minority clients: d. Because most assessment instruments are culturally biased and diagnosticians are not generally from a minority group, minority clients are diagnosed as having more severe mental illnesses and than are white persons. e. As opposed to the white population, the minority population tends to use mental health services only in the most extreme circumstances, which greatly skews the statistics about persons using mental health services. f. Minority clients tend to drop out of treatment within the first six session, the reason for this is unknown but speculation is that they may either be less motivated or they may not perceived the services as helping. g. Definite differences have been noted wbetween Black and White clients with the Black clients receiving more punitive therapies, i.e. stronger medications, restraints, seclusion. h. Minority group attitudes concerning sources of mental illness is markedly different .i.e. organic, inherited illnesses. i. Few trained therapists in whom the minority client can feel comfortable and share cultural identity. j. Minority clients are often misperceived by the counselor as because of differences in culturally defined nonverbal communication. k. Counseling may be viewed by the minority client as a control device forcing them away from their cultural behavior and toward a White culture. l. In order to help the minority client, Pedersen (1988) recommends awareness in the following areas. m. ability to recognize direct and indirect communication styles;; n. sensitivity to nonverbal cues;; o. awareness of cultural and linguistic differences;; p. interest in the culture;; q. sensitivity to the myths and stereotypes of the culture;; r. concern for the welfare of persons from another culture;; s. ability to articulate elements of his or her own culture;; t. appreciation of the importance of multicultural teaching;; u. awareness of the relationships between cultural groups;; and v. accurate criteria for objectively judging "goodness" and "badness" in the other culture. (p. 9) w. culturally effective counselor has these characteristics: i. Culturally effective counselors understand their own values and assumptions of human behavior and recognize that those held by others may differ. ii. Culturally effective counselors realize that "no theory of counseling is politically or morally neutral." iii. Culturally effective counselors understand that external sociopolitical forces may have influenced and shaped culturally different groups. iv. Culturally effective counselors are able to share the world-­view of their clients rather than being culturally encapsulated. v. Culturally effective counselors are truly eclectic in their counseling, using counseling skills because of their appropriateness to the experiences and lifestyles of the culturally different (p. 165-­ 166.) 4. Older Adults (Gibson & Mitchell, 1995) a. Physical needs seem to be most obvious, but more public education needs to be provided about the counseling needs of the older adult. b. Each community has an older adult population with older adults tending to be grouped in specific areas, which suggest that each community needs to identify the geographical area representing the concentration of older adults. c. Because there are more older females than males, counselors need to be trained to handle problems unique to the older female, but emphasis needs to be placed also on the older male as he may become a minority within minority. d. Of special interests are services for the older adults living alone that provides opportunities to meet others and for companionship. e. Fixed incomes means that older adults will need more public than private fee services. f. Existing counseling services in employment service and vocational rehabilitation may need to be expanded to include services for aging population. g. While most of the older adults will be able to travel to received services, transportation, home deliveries, homebound and human or mechanical aid needs to be considered in providing services. h. The age to which older persons can expect to live is greater than that of those just born or the general population;; therefore, counselors need to help them plan for the future with better data or most recent data on life expectancy. i. Demographics for study need to take in consideration the gender and the race of the person, as conditions may vary greatly in these two areas. j. Individual uniqueness is much more a consideration in the older adults. As an example no where else in the population does the counselor find that marital counseling may need to be for the couple married over 60 years as well as for newlyweds. k. Counselors need to be social activists against ageism that prevents the older adult from receiving adequate mental health care. l. Specific developmental points of crisis are: i. Retirement ii. Loss of spouse iii. Physical and mental decline iv. Financial security decline v. Decline in mobility m. Counselor need to be aware of the following in working with the older adult: i. The living environment of the older adult ii. Psychological factors of anxiety, loss, and interpersonal struggles iii. Need to build a trusting relationship