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CSET Multiple Subjects: Subtest 3 - Human
Development
CognitiveiDevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiTransformationsiiniaichild'sithought,ilanguage,iandiintelligence Theories: -Piaget'siStagesiofiCognitiveiDevelopment -Kohlberg'siStagesiofiMoraliDevelopment -Multi-theoreticaliperspectivesiofilanguage,iintelligence,iandichildreniwithispecialineeds Conservationi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Aiconceptualitoolithatiallowsiaichilditoirecognizeithatiwhenialteringitheiappearanceiofianiobject,itheibasi cipropertiesidoinotichange -Aiyoungichildifailsitoimasterithisitaskibecauseitheiwayithingsilookiinfluencesihowitheichildithinks -BasedioniEinstein'sifamousiformula,iEi=imc²,iwhichistatesithatimassiandienergyicanibeitransformedifro mioneitoitheiother,ibutitheiritotaliamountiisifixedi(conserved)isoithatiitineitheriincreasesinoridecreases -Piagetiusedithisiconceptiwhenireferringitoinumbers,ivolumes,iweights,iandimatteri(concreteioperations ) Adaptationi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiChildreniadjustitoinewiinformationiaboutitheirienvironmentiiniorderitoifunctionimoreieffectively Fundamentaliconcepts: -Assimilation -Accommodation Assimilationi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Refersitoitheiwayichildreniincorporateinewiinformationiwithiexistingischemesiiniorderitoiformiainewico gnitiveistructure -Childrenifitithisinewiknowledgeiintoiaitemplateiofiexistingischemes Example:iAipreschoolichildicallsiailioni"doggie"ibecauseitheichildionlyiknowsioneitypeiofifour- leggedianimal. Accommodationi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiOccursiwhenichildrenitakeiexistingischemesiandiadjustithemitoifititheiriexperience Example:iAipreschoolichildiplaysiwithitheikeysioniaipianoitoihearitheidifferentisoundsiofimusicalinotes.i Wheniheitriesithisiwithianielectricikeyboard,iheiquicklyilearnsithatitheikeyboardimustibeiturnedionibefor eiiticanibeiplayed.iHeimustiaccommodateithisinewiinformationitoifititheiexperience. Piaget'siCognitiveiLearningiProcessi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii FouriassumptionsiofiPiaget'siStagesiofiCognitiveiDevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iChildreniareiorganicallyiinspireditoithink,ilearn,iandicomprehend
2.iChildreniseeitheiworldidifferentlyithaniadults 3.iChildren'siknowledgeiisiorderediintoimentalistructuresicalledischemas 4.iAllilearningiconsistsiofiassimilationiandiaccommodation Piaget'siStagesiofiCognitiveiDevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiStagei 1 i-iSensorimotoriPeriod:iInfancy -Age:ibirth-2iyears -Characteristics:iInfant'siphysicaliresponseitoiimmediateisurroundings Stagei 2 i-iPreoperationaliPeriod:iEarlyiChildhood -Age:i2-7iyears -Characteristics:iEgocentric—Focusionisymbolicithoughtiandiimagination Stagei 3 i-iConcreteiOperationsiPeriod:iMiddleiChildhood -Age:i7-11iyears -Characteristics:iMasteryioficonservation—Childibeginsitoithinkilogically Stagei 4 i-iFormaliOperationsiPeriod:iAdolescence -Age:i 12 iyears-adult -Characteristics:iThinkingibasedioniabstractiprinciples Stagei 1 i-iSensorimotoriPeriod:iInfancyi(birth-2iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Behavioriisibasediuponitheiinfant'siphysicaliresponsesitoiimmediateisurroundings -Infantsimentallyiorganizeiandiperceiveitheiriworldithroughitheirisensoryisystemsi(i.e.,iwhatitheyitouch, isee,ifeel,ihear,ismell,ietc.) -Itiisialmostibyimishapithatitheiinfantidiscoversithatihisiphysicalireflexesihaveianiimpactionitheiworldiaro undihimiasitheiinfantimovesifromireflexiveiactionsitoirepresentationali(symbolic)ithought -Thisitransitionifollowsiaiseriesiofiincreasinglyiprogressiveiskills -Duringithisiperiod,iinfantsiareiatitheicenteriofitheiriuniversei(egocentrism) Stagei 2 i-iPreoperationaliPeriod:iEarlyiChildhoodi(2-7iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Developmentiofisymbolicithoughtiandiimaginationiisiboundless -Inistrivingitoiunderstanditheiriworld,iaroundiagei5,ichildrenibeginitoiaskiaimultitudeiofi"why"iquestions -Childrenicanireasoniintuitively,iandirepresentationalithoughtihasiemerged -Childrenicontinueitoimakeierrorsiinispokenilanguage -Thereiisiaidramaticidifferenceiinitheichild'sidevelopmentiasieachiyearipasses -Childreniloveitoihearistories,isingisongs,iandireciteinurseryirhymes -Independentiandicooperativeiplayibecomeiimportantiduringithisistage -Byiaboutiagei6,iaichild'silanguageidevelopmenti(particularlyitheichild'siabilityitoibeiaibettericonversati onalist)iisidramaticallyidifferentifromithatiofiai2-year-old -Languageiincreasesirapidlyiasichildrenilearnimanyinewiwordsieachiday Stagei 3 i-iConcreteiOperationsiPeriod:iMiddleiChildhoodi(7-11iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Childihasiabilityitoisolveisimpleiproblemsiwhileithinkingiaboutimultipleidimensionsiofiinformation -Childrenicaninowi"thinkiaboutithinking"i(metacognition) -Childreniunderstanditheiworldithroughitrialiandierror -Childrenicannotiyetithinkiabstractly,ibutitheyidoiunderstanditheidistinctionibetweeniappearanceiandirea lityiifipresentediinitermsiofitangibleiobjects
Leveli 4 i(agei10):iChildinowiapproachesianiadultiexplanation -"Cloudsimoveibecauseiofiwindicurrents." Centrationi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiTheitendencyiforiaichilditoifocusionionlyioneipieceiofiinformationiatiaitimeiwhileidisregardingiall iothersi(preoperational) Example:iAichildiisiplayingioutsideioniaiswingiwhenihisimotheridecidesitoibringihimiiniforiainap.iTheich ildibecomesiupsetibecauseialliheicanifocusioniisiridingitheiswing. Egocentrismi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiUntiliaboutiagei5,iyoungichildrenicannotidifferentiateibetweenitheiriowniperspectivesiandifeelin gsiandisomeoneielse'si(preoperational). Example:iWhileispeakingionitheiphoneiwithiherifather,iaichildisays,i"Seeimyinewishoes." Equilibriumi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Developmentiisimotivatedibyitheisearchiforiaistableibalanceitowardieffectiveiadaptations -Thisibalancedistateiisicallediequilibriumiandihasithreeiphases: ---1.iChildrenibeginiiniaistateiofibalance ---2.iThoughtichangesiandiconflictiemerges ---3.iThroughitheiprocessiofiassimilationiandiaccommodation,iaimoreisophisticatedimodeiofithoughtisur faces Irreversibilityi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Childrenimakeierrorsiinitheirithinkingibecauseitheyicannotiunderstandithatianioperationimovesiinimoreit hanioneidirection -Theyicannotiunderstandithatitheioriginalistateicanibeirecoveredi(preoperational) Example:iIfiEmmaiplaysiwithiaiballioficlay,isheibelievesithatitheyiclayimustialwaysibeiinithisisameiformit oiremainitheisameiamount.iWheniaiclassmateiplaysiwithitheiclayiandigivesiitibackiasiailong,inarrowipiec e,iEmmaithinksishe'sigettingibackiless. -Theioppositeiofiirreversibilityiisireversibility,iwhichiisitheiabilityiofichildrenitoimentallyireturnitoiaisitu ationiorioperationijustilikeiitiwasiinitheibeginning Metacognitioni-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Aichild'siawarenessiofiknowingiaboutione'siowniknowledge -Metacognitionihelpsichildreniplanitheiriowniproblem-solvingistrategiesi(concreteioperations) -Thinkingiaboutithinking -Metamemoryi=iknowingiaboutimemory ObjectiPermanencei-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Recognitionithatiobjectsiandieventsicontinueitoiexistieveniwhenitheyiareinotivisible Example:iInitheiabsenceiofiobjectipermanence,ianiinfantiwillinotisearchiforitheiobjectiwhenitheiobjectiisi hidden—"outiofisight,ioutiofimind" -Piagetibelievedithisiabilityicouldinotibeimasterediuntiliabouti 8 imonthsiold,ibutimoreirecentistudiesihave ishownithatiinfantsiasiyoungiasithreeimonthsioldiappeareditoiknowithatiobjectsididinotidisappeariwhenio utiofisight
TypesiofiReasoningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Hypothetical-DeductiveiReasoning -InductiveiReasoning -TransductiveiReasoning Hypothetical-DeductiveiReasoningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Formulatingiaispecificihypothesisifromianyigivenigeneralitheoryi(formalioperations) -Thisiisitheiabilityitoiformiideasiabouti"whatimightibe" -Thisiisidoneibyimentallyiformingiailogicaliandisystematiciplanitoiworkioutitheirightisolutioniaftericonsi deringiallitheipossibleiconsequences Example:iTommyimakesiaigeneraliobservationithatishortistudentsiareinotiselectediforitheischoolibasketb alliteam.iSinceiTommyiisishort,iheideducesithatiheiwillinotibeiselected. InductiveiReasoningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiDrawingiconclusionsifromispecificiexamplesitoimakeiaigeneraliconclusion,ieveniwhenitheiconcl usioniisinotiaccuratei(concreteioperations) Example:iAlliofitheiballsionitheischooliplaygroundiareiround.iByidevelopingiaimentalischema,iaichildim ayireasoniinductivelyithatialliballsiareiround.iThisiwouldibeianiinaccurateiconclusionisinceiaifootballiisin otiround. TransductiveiReasoningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Childrenimentallyiconnectispecificiexperiences,iwhetheriorinotithereiisiailogicalicasualirelationshipi(pre operational) -Aichildibelievesihisithoughtsiwillicauseisomethingitoihappeni(seeialsoiCasualiReasoning) Example:iBilliwasimeanitoihisilittleisister.iHisisisterigotisick.iBillireasonedithatiheimadeihisisisterisick. Schemes/Schemasi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Schemesiareitheiwayichildrenimentallyirepresentiandiorganizeitheiworld -Childreniformimentalirepresentationsiofiperceptions,iideas,ioriactionsitoihelpithemiunderstandiexperie nces -Schemesicanibeiveryispecific,ioritheyicanibeielaborate Example:iWhileisittingiiniaihighchair,ianiinfantirepeatedlyidropsiaiplasticicupiontoitheiflooriwhileithinki ng,i"IfiIidropimyicup,isomeoneiwillipickiitiup."iThisiactionihelpsitheiinfantiunderstandithatithisischemaih asiaicause-and-effectirelationship. Seriationi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiAichild'siabilityitoiarrangeiobjectsiinilogicaliprogressioni(concreteioperations) Example:iAichildiarrangesisticksiiniorderifromismallestitoilargest SymboliciFunctioniSubstagei-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiTheichildiusesiwordsiandiimagesi(symbols)itoiformimentalirepresentationsitoirememberiobjectsi withoutitheiobjectsibeingiphysicallyipresent Example:iAichild'sidogiisilost,isoitheichildiscribblesiaipictureiofitheidog;ioritheichildipretendsithatiaistuff edianimaliisitheimissingidog
-Moraliandiethicalichoicesiriseiaboveitheilawsiofisociety,iandiindividualsilookiwithinithemselvesiforithei answersiratherithanibasingimoralidecisionsioniexternalisourcesiofiauthority -Manyipeopleineverienteriintoithisileveliofimoralidevelopment Educationaliimplicationsiofimoralidevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersimustirecognizeithatichildreniinternalizeiwhatiisirightiandiwrongibasediuponitheiribas icivaluesiandisenseiofiself 2.iTeachersimustirecognizeitheisequentialifoundationiuponiwhichihigherimoraliprinciplesiareibased 3.iTeachersimustirecognizeithatichildrenirespondidifferentlyitoivariousimoralidilemmasidependingiupon iage,ieducation,iandisocioeconomiciinfluences Languagei-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiAicommunicationisystemiofiwordsithatiareisymbolicirepresentationsiofiobjects,iactions,iandifeel ings LeviVygotskyi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiLanguageishapesithought -Toiacquireiknowledge,ithoughtiisiaifundamentalinecessity -Itimustibei"thoughtiabout"ibeforeianyinewiideasicanibeiformulatedi(e.g.,iaistudentiwhoiisilearningiEngli shiasiaisecondilanguageimustibeicompetentiinihisiprimaryinativeilanguageibeforeiheicani"think"ioriunder standinewiconceptsiinianotherilanguage) -Initialiemergenceiofilanguageiandithoughtiareiseparateifromieachiother,iuntiliaboutitheiageiofi 3 iwheniait ransitionitakesiplaceiinitheichildifromitheiexternalitoitheiinternal -Childrenipracticeiprivateispeechi(self-talk)itoibecomeimoreicompetent ---Theiuseiofiprivateispeechihelpsichildrenitoiself- regulateithroughiorganizing,iguiding,iandicontrollingitheiribehavior ---Privateispeechiisiresponsibleiforiallihigherilevelsiofimentalifunctioning NoamiChomskyi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiLanguageiAcquisition -Languageilearningiisiinnate -Chomskyibelievesithatichildreniareiprewireditoilearnilanguageiandithatiinfantsihaveiailanguageiacquisit ionidevicei(LAD)ibuilt-inineurologicallyisoithatitheyicaniintuitivelyiunderstandigrammar -Thereiisiaicriticaliperiodiwhenichildrenifindiitieasyitoilearnilanguage Languageidevelopmentimilestones:iInfanti(0-12imonths)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Earlyivocalizationsiareispontaneousisoundsioficooingi(vowels)ioricrying -Thenibabblingisoundsi(phonemes)ibeginiwithisoundsimoreilikeipatternedispeechiwithiconsonant- vowelistringsi("da-da-da-da") Languageidevelopmentimilestones:iToddleri(12-18imonths)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Firstiwordsiareispoken,iusuallyifamiliariobjectsioripeople -Simpleimonosyllabiciwordsiareiused,isuchiasi"momma"iori"bye-bye" Languageidevelopmentimilestones:iToddleri(18-24imonths)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Firstisentencesi(twoiwords)iareispoken -Theitoddlericaniunderstandigrammaticalirelationships,ibuticannotiyetiexpressithem
-Theitoddleriusesiarticlesi(the,ia),iprepositionsi(on,iin),iconjunctionsi(and,ibut)ianditheiverbi"toibe"i(am,i are,iis) -Wordierrorsiincludeiunderextendingiwordimeanings Languageidevelopmentimilestones:iEarlyichildhoodi(3-4iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Learnsiabouti 8 itoi 9 iwordsieachiday -Theiaverageivocabularyiconsistsiofi1,000iwords -Theichildicanitalkiaboutithingsinotipresent,iandiusesipluraliandipossessiveiformsiofinounsi(e.g.icatsiandi cat's) -Theichildiaddsi"- ing"itoiverbs,iandiknowsithatimoreithanioneiadjectiveicaniapplyitoitheisameinouni("Rustyiisiblackiandiflu ffy") -Theichildialsoistartsiprivateispeech Languageidevelopmentimilestones:i(5-7iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Asksimanyiwhyiquestionsi("Howimanyistarsiareiinitheisky?") -Theichildicaniunderstandimetaphori("Don'tibeiaiquackingiduck")iandicaniusei4-itoi5- iwordideclarativeisentencesi("Iiaminotisleepy"),iinterrogativeisentencesi("Whyican'tiIigo?")iandiimperat iveisentencesi("TurnioffitheiTV!") -Theichildiusesiconjunctions,iprepositions,iandiarticlesiregularly,iandiunderstandsisyntax -Theichildimakesierrorsiiniover-regularizationsiofitransitiveioriintransitiveiverbsi("Sheisingediaisong") -Atiagei6,itheiaverageivocabularyiisi2,500iwords,ibutitheichildispeaksiabouti8,000itoi14,000iwords -Speechiisimoreiadult-like Educationaliimplicationsiofilanguageidevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersimustibeiawareithatitheiprocessiofilanguageidevelopmentiisimultifaceted,iincludingip hysicalisounds,icognitiveithought,iandisocialiinteractions 2.iTeachersishouldirecognizeithatilanguageicognitively,ilinguistically,iandiemotionallyibeginsiatihome.i Parentsiplayianiactiveiroleiiniteachingilanguageitoichildren.iAdultsiteachilanguageitoichildrenithroughiin fant-directedispeech,irecasting,iechoing,iexpanding,iandilabeling 3.iTeachersishouldirecognizeithatichildreniwilliacquireitheiuseiofiEnglishieveniwhenitheirinativeilangua geiisitheionlyilanguageispokeniatihome 4.iSinceitheiworkiofiVygotskyisupportsitheinotionithatilanguageiisiessentialitoitheidevelopmentiofithinki ng,iteachersishouldisupportiappropriateiprivateispeechiiniorderitoihelpichildreniself- regulateiandiaccessiaihigherileveliofifunctioning Intelligencei-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Aitraitithatiisiinferredionitheibasisiofiobservableibehavior -Aniindividual'sigeneralimentaliabilitiesi("g"ifactor),iincluding:ireasoning,iproblemisolving,iknowledg e,imemory,iandisuccessfuliadaptationitoitheienvironment -Educatorsiandipsychologistsifaceicontroversyioveritheifairnessiofiintelligenceitestingitoidetermineimen taliabilities,iperformanceiranking,iandiacademicipotential IQi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Intelligenceiquotientitestsiidentifyivariablesitoitestiandimeasure -IQi≠iintelligence;iIQi=iaiscoreionianiintelligenceitest -Ifiintelligenceiisiequatediwithiacademiciachievement,itheniIQitestsiareiaigoodiwayitoimeasureiintellige nce
3.iSpatialiAbility:iTheiabilityitoithinkithree-dimensionallyi(architects,iartists,iandiengineers) 4.iBodily- KinestheticiAbility:iTheiabilityitoisolveiproblemsiusingitheibodyiandiphysicaliskilli(surgeons,icraftspeo ple,idancers,iandiathletes) 5.iMusicaliAbility:iHavingiaisensitivityitoipitch,imelody,irhythm,ianditonei(composers,imusicians,iandis ensitiveilisteners) 6.iInterpersonaliAbility:iTheiabilityitoiunderstandiothers,iaipeopleipersoniwhoihasigoodiconversationisk illsiandiknowsihowitoiinteractiwithiothersi(teachers,imentalihealthiprofessionals,isalespeople,iandipoliti cians) 7.iIntrapersonaliAbility:iTheiabilityitoiunderstandioneselfiandieffectivelyidirectione'silifei(theologiansia ndipsychologists) 8.iNaturaliAbility:iTheiabilityitoiobserveipatternsiininatureiandiunderstandinaturaliandihuman- madeisystemsi(farmers,ibotanists,iecologists,iandilandscapers) Sternberg'siTriarchiciTheoryiofiIntelligencei-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Peopleiwhoiareiintelligentipossessiaihighilevelioficommonisenseiandihaveitheiabilityitoisucceediaccordi ngitoitheiripersonalidefinitioniofisuccess,iwithinitheilimitsiofitheiricultureiandisociety -Theyiadaptitheiriweaknessesiandigetitheimostioutiofitheiristrengths 1.iAnalyticali(componential):iEssentiallyimeasuresitheisameielementsithatiareimeasuredibyitraditionalii ntelligenceitests,isuchiasimemory,icriticalithinking,iandiproblemisolving 2.iCreativei(experiential):iConsistsiofitheiabilityitoicreate,idesign,iimagine,ioriinvent.iAichildiwhoiscore sihighiinithisiareaiisiinsightfuliandicreative.iThisichildiusuallyidoesinotirelateiwellitoitheiacademicideman dsiofischool 3.iPracticali(contextual):iAicomponentithatifocusesionitheiabilityitoiuse,iapply,iimplement,iandiputisome thingiintoipractice.iAichildiwhoiscoresihighiinithisiareaiisitypicallyi"streetismart."iThisichildidoesinotiusu allyiworkiwelliwithitheidemandsifromischool Educationaliimplicationsiofiintelligencei-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersishouldiappealitoiaibalancedicombinationiofialliintelligences 2.iTeachersicanidevelopiprogramsitoiinstructistudentsiusingimultipleidomainsitoihelpistudentsifeelisocia llyivalued 3.iTeachersishouldidevelopiaistudent'silearningiportfolioibasediuponitheiindividualiintellectualistrength siofieachistudent,iincludingiassessmentsithatitakeiintoiaccountitheidiversityiofiintelligences 4.iTeachersishouldiofferiaivarietyiofiassessmentitypesitoiallowistudentsitoishowitheiristrengthsiandievalu ateitheiriweaknesses Learningidisabilitiesi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-ChildreniwithiLDsiareioftenichildreniwithiaverageitoiabove- averageiintelligenceiwhoiexhibitiemotionaliand/oriphysicalimaladaptiveibehavior
-Iniobservingichildreniwithilearningidisabilities,iteachersifrequentlyiviewiaidiscrepancyibetweeniaichild 'simeasurediintelligenceianditheichild'siperformanceiinitheiclassroom -Typically,iLDichildrenihaveiaineurologicaliimpairmentianditheibrainihasidifficultyiprocessingiinformat ioniwheniitireceivesistimuli -ManyichildrenimayinotireceiveiadequateidiagnosisianditreatmentiforiLDibecauseitheiribehavioriisioften imisunderstoodiorimisdiagnosed -ChildrenidoinotioutgrowiLD;irather,itheyidevelopiaivarietyioficopingistrategiesitoibetterihelpithemideali withitheiridisability -Stressicaniresultiinifurtheridistressiforitheichildiandicanimagnifyihisioriherisymptoms Typesiofilearningidisabilitiesi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Visual-PerceptualiDisabilityi(Dyslexia) -Auditory-PerceptualiDisabilityi(HearingiDifficulty) -AttentioniandiHyperactivityiDisorders -Perceptual-MotoriDisability -MentaliRetardationi(EducationallyiDelayed) Visual-PerceptualiDisabilityi(Dyslexia)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Childreniwithiaivisual-perceptualidisabilityiseeilettersiandinumbersiinidifferentipositions -Whenireading,itheyimayiconfuseirightiorileft,ianditheyimayiskipiorireverseiwords -Theyiareisometimesiobservediasihavingidifficultyiwithiphysicalicoordinationidueitoitheiridifficultyiwit hieye-handicoordination -Theimostirecognizedivisual- perceptualidisabilityiisidyslexia,iwherebyiaistudentiperceivesilettersiinireverse Auditory-PerceptualiDisabilityi(HearingiDifficulty)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Childreniwhoihaveianiauditory- perceptualidisabilityimayifindiitidifficultitoidistinguishibetweenitheidifferencesiinisounds -Teachersiwilliofteniobserveitheseichildreniasiappearingitoibeilostioriconfusediwhenicallediuponiinitheicl assroom -Teachersifrequentlyicommentithatitheseichildreniareinotipayingiattentioniinitheiclassroom,iwheniinireal ity,itheyimayibeistrugglingitoiheariwhatiisibeingisaid -Sometimesievenisubtleidisabilitiesiinihearingimayipreventitheichildifromiunderstandingitheifulliconten tioficlassroomimaterial AttentioniandiHyperactivityiDisordersi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- MostichildreniwithiAttentioniDeficitiHyperactivityiDisorderi(ADHD)ishowisymptomsiofibothiinattenti oniandihyperactivity,ibutithereiareisomeichildreniwhoiareiinattentiveiandidoinotishowisignsiofihyperacti vity;itheseichildrenihaveiAttentioniDeficitiDisorderi(ADD) -Childreniwithiaihyperactiveioriattentionidisabilityimayiconsistentlyishowioneiorimoreiofitheifollowingi behaviors: ---Difficultyipayingiattention ---Easilyidistracted ---Showihyperactivity ---Becomeifrustratedieasily ---Difficultyicontrollingimuscleiorimotoriactivityi(constantlyimoving) ---Difficultyistayingionitask,isuccumbingitoiwhateveriattractsitheiriattention ---Showiinappropriateiover-activity -Teachersiwilliofteniobserveitheseichildrenispeakingioutiloud,iforgettingiresponsibilities,iandigivingiupi easilyiwhenitheyidon'tiseeiairesolutionitoiaiproblem -Moreiboysithanigirlsiareidiagnosediwithithisidisability
-Divideiclassroomiassignmentsiintoismalleritasksitoihelpistudentsifeeliaisenseiofismalleriaccomplishme nts Socialidevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiBasedioniwhaticanibeiobservediandilearnedithroughiexperienceiinitheichild'sienvironment Learningibehavioritheories: -IvaniPavlov'siandiJohniWatson'siclassicaliconditioning -B.F.iSkinner'sioperanticonditioning Socialitheoriesiiniunderstandingichildidevelopment: -ErikiErikson'sipsychosocialitheory -LeviVygotsky'sisocioculturalicognitiveitheory -AlbertiBandura'sisocialilearningitheory IvaniPavloviandiJohniWatson'siClassicaliConditioningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Statedithatibehavioriisilearnedibasediuponirepetition,iassociation,iandianticipation -Pavloviconductedistimulus- responseiexperimentsiiniwhichidogsilearneditoiinvoluntarilyirespond,ibyisalivating,ieachitimeiaibelliran giatifeedingitime -Theidogsiwereiconditioneditoiresponditoitheibell,inotitoiseeingiorismellingitheifood -Watsoniappliedithisistimulus- responseimanipulationitoichildreniandiclaimedithatibasediuponihisiobservations,itheibehavioriofichildre niisieasilyiconditioned -Childrenirespondiautomatically,isinceitheyihaveiformedianiassociationibetweeniaistimulusianditheiresp onse Educationaliimplicationsioficlassicaliconditioningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersicanibeiassuredithatithroughirepetitioni(andibasediuponitheichild'siexperience),ilearni ngiisipredictable 2.iTeachersicanihelpichildrenibeisuccessfulibyimakingitheiriworldimoreiorderlyiandipredictable 3.iTeachersiwillirecognizeithatiaichild'silearnediexperiencesicaniaccountiforilateribehavioripatterns B.F.iSkinner'siOperantiConditioningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Childrenicanilearnifromioperatingiinitheienvironment -Whenichildrenioperateiinitheienvironment,itheiribehavioriresponseiproducesiaiconsequenceiofieitheriair einforcedirewardioripunishment -Thisiassociativeilearningiprocessihelpsichildrenitoiassociateitheiriactionsiwithiaipositiveiorinegativeico nsequence -Behaviorithatiisireinforcedi(rewarded)iwillitenditoibeistrengthened -Conversely,ibehaviorithatiisinotireinforcediwillitenditoibeieliminatedioriextinguished Educationaliimplicationsiofioperanticonditioningi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersicaniuseibehaviorimodificationiinitheiclassroomiasiailearningitooli(alteringitheienviro nmentiorisituationitoiproduceiaimoreifavorableioutcome) 2.iTeachersicanireinforceipositiveibehavioritoiproduceisubsequentidesirableibehaviorsi(e.g.,ipositiveifee dback,ipraise,iorigoldistars)iandinotireinforceiundesirableibehaviors Personalityi-i
iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Theiuniqueicharacteristicipatternsiofiaiperson'sithoughts,iemotions,iandibehavior -Debateiaboutianiindividual'sitraitsibeingiinheritedivs.iadaptediinfluencesifromione'sienvironment Erickson'siPsychosocialiStagesiofiDevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- EricksonihelpeditoitransformiFreud'sitraditionalipsychosexualiperspectivesionihumanidevelopment -Earlyichildhoodiexperiencesihelpeditoipermanentlyishapeipersonality -Personalityidevelopsithroughiaiseriesioficonflictsithatiareiinfluencedibyisocietyiduringiage- relateditimeiperiods -8istagesiofiage- specificicrisesithatiweipassithroughiiniorderitoicreateiequilibriumibetweenisocietyiandiourselves -Eachistageicentersioniaiuniqueidevelopmentalitaskithatimustibeiconfrontediandinegotiated -Childrenimoveitoitheinextidevelopmentalicrises,inoimatteriwhatitheioutcome,ieveniwhenitheioutcomeii sinotifavorableiandimayileaditoilateriadjustmentiproblems -Theicrisisiisiconsiderediaiturningipointiiniaichild'silifeiwhenisuccessfullyimastered Stagei 1 i(1i1/2iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiBasicitrustivs.imistrust -Gainingiaisenseiofitrustiduringiinfancyihelpsitoisetitheistageiforiailifelongiexpectationiofifeelingisafeian disecureiinitheiworld -Theiinfanticanicountioniothersitoisatisfyihisioriherineeds,iwhileifeelingilovediandicaredifor -Thisibasiciexperienceiofiinteractingiwithianiattentiveicaregiverigivesitheiinfantiailifelongifeelingiofisec urityiandipredictability -Theiabsenceiofitrusticaniresultiinileavingitheiinfantifeelingisuspicious,iguarded,iandiwithdrawnifromirel ationships Stagei 2 i(1i1/2-3i1/2iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiAutonomyivs.ishameiandidoubt -Theitoddlerilearnsihowitoiexplore,iexperiment,imakeimistakes,ianditestilimitsiiniorderitoigainiaisenseiofi independenceiandiself-reliance -Toddlersiareiintoieverythingiatithisiage,iandimanyipeopleireferitoithisiperiodiasithei"terribleitwos" -Itiisidifficultitoikeepitheitoddleriundericontrol -Ifiautonomyiisiinhibitedioripunishmentiisiharshlyiinflicted,itheitoddlerimayifeeliaisenseiofishame -Shameileavesitheitoddlerifeelingiaisenseiofidislikeiforihimself -Heimayialsoibeireticentitoitryinewiactivities Stagei 3 i(3i1/2-6iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiAutonomyivs.iguilt -Buildingiuponitheisuccessesifromitheipreviousistages,ichildreniatithisiageifeelifreeitoitryioutinewiactiviti esiandiassumeigreateriresponsibilityiforitheiribodiesianditheiribehavior -Thisinewibalanceiofiresponsibilityihelpsitheipreschoolerihaveiaipositiveiviewiofiself,igivesiconfidenceit oihisidecision-makingiability,iandiimpartsiaiwillingnessitoitakeirisks -Uniqueiaspirationsisurface,iandichildrenibeginitoishowidefiniteisignsiofiemergingipersonalities -Theiabsenceiofiinitiativeimayileaveitheichildifeelingiaisenseiofiguilt,isometimesiaboutialmostianything -Theichildimayifeelilikeianythingiheidoesimayidisappointipeopleiaroundihim Stagei 4 i(6-12iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ iiIndustryivs.iinferiority
-Essentialielementsiofiscaffolding: ---Theiuseiofimediatorsiforilearning ---Theiemphasisiofilanguageiandisharediactivityiforilearning ---Sharediactivity,iwhichistronglyiimprovesitheichild'siproblem- solvingiabilitiesi(e.g.,iaififthigraderihelpingiaifirstigraderireadiaibook) EducationaliimplicationsiofiVygotsky'sisocioculturalitheoryi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTheiimportanceiofisocialiandimulticulturalieducationishouldibeiemphasizediinitheiclassroom 2.iClassroomiteachingishouldiemphasizeiinclusion,iprovidingianienvironmentiforiallistudentsitoithinkia ndilearn.iIsolatingiaichildiinhibitsihisiabilityitoidevelop 3.iWheniassessingiaichild,iteachersishouldiunderstanditheidifferenceibetweeniwhatiaichildicanidoionihisi owniandiwhatitheichildicanidoiwithisomeihelpi(zoneiofiproximalidevelopment) 4.iTeachersishouldirecognizeithatichildrenicaniofteniperform,iwithianiadult'sioriolderipeer'sihelp,iaitaskit hatitheyimayihaveiotherwiseibeeniincapableioficompletingionitheiriowni(scaffolding) 5.iTeachersishouldibeiorganizing,inotidictating,iaichild'sidevelopmentiusingiguidedipractice.iTeachersiin itiallyiassumeiresponsibilityiforiproblemisolving,ibutigraduallyiallowitheiresponsibilityitoitransferibacki toitheichild 6.iParentsiplayiaikeyiroleiasisignificanticontributorsiinitheichild'siintellectualidevelopment Bandura'sisocialilearningitheoryi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Emphasizesitheivalueiofilearningithroughiobservation -Stressesitheiimportanceiofiobservingiandimodelingitheibehaviors,iattitudes,iandiemotionalireactionsiofi othersitoiadvanceiinilearning -Childreniimitateibehaviorithroughisocializationibyilearningigenderiroles,iself-reinforcement,iself- efficacyi(beliefiinitheiabilityitoidoithingsionitheiriown),iandiotheriaspectsiofipersonality -Imitationiandirehearsingiareipowerfulitoolsiforilearning -IniBandura'si"Boboidolliexperiment,"iquiet,iwell- behavedipreschoolichildreniobservedianiadultiwhoirepeatedlyipunchediandiknockedidownianiinflatedid oll ---Later,ichildreniimitatedithisiaggressiveibehavioriinitheiclassroom ---AccordingitoiBandura,iaggressiveimodelsiencourageiaggressivenessiinichildren Attachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-MaryiAinsworth'siobservationsiofiearlyimother- infantibondingihaveihadiaiprofoundiinfluenceiinitheiunderstandingiofichildidevelopmentiandiattachment itheory -ThroughiheriscientificistudiesicallediStrangeiSituation,isheidevelopediaiwell-recognizedilaboratory- baseditechniqueitoiassessiattachment -Theseipatternsiofiattachmentistressitheiimportanceiofiearlyiinfant- parentibondingiinitheidevelopmentiofipersonality -Itiisiobservediasibeingicoreitoisocialidevelopmentiandiofiallifutureirelationships Patternsiofiattachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Secureiattachment -Anxious-resistantiattachment -Anxious-avoidantiattachment -Disorganized-disorientediattachment
SecureiAttachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Theiinfantiusesitheicaregiveri(parent)iasitheisecureibaseitoiexploreitheienvironmenti(e.g.,ichildifreelyisep aratesifromiparentitoiplay) -Childreniwhoiareisecurelyiattachediareirelativelyicomfortableiwithiothers,ibelieveithatimostiothersiareit rustworthy,iandidon'tiworryiaboutiabandonment Anxious-ResistantiAttachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Theiinfantibecomesianxiousibeforeitheicaregiverileavesiandiisiupsetiduringitheicaregiver'siabsencei(e.g., ichildicannotiseparateitoiexploreioriplay;itheichildimayihit,icry,iorikickiuponitheiparent'sireturn) -Childreniwhoiareianxious- resistantimightifeeliskepticaliaboutitryinginewithings,ifeelithatiothersican'tibeitrusted,ifeeliangryimuchiof itheitime,iandipushiawayithoseiwhyitryitoigeticlose Anxious-AvoidantiAttachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Theiinfantireadilyiseparatesifromitheiparentiandiactivelyiavoidsitheiparentiuponireunioni(e.g.,ichildimov esiaway,ilooksiaway,ioriignoresitheiparentiuponitheiparent'sireturn) -Childreniwhoiareianxious- avoidantitenditoihaveidifficultyitrusting,iavoidiplayingiwithiotherichildren,iandibecomeianxiousiifisome oneitriesitoigetitooiclose Disorganized-DisorientediAttachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Theiinfantishowsiinsecurityiandishowsisignsiofibeingidisorientedi(e.ge.,ichildilooksidazed,iconfused,ian disometimesifearfuliuponitheiparent'sireturn) -Childreniwhoiexperienceidisorganized- disorientediattachmentioftenifeeliconfusediorimisunderstood,ifeelithatiothersiareiunreliable,iandiareiofte nifearfuliaboutinewisituations Educationaliimplicationsiofiattachmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iAlthoughiinfantiattachmentiisinotitheionlyipathitoisocialicompetenceiinichildren,iteachersishou ldirecognizeitheiimportanceiofisecureiattachmentiasiaikeyiroleiiniobservableisecureirelationships 2.iTeachersishouldibeiawareithaticulturalidiversityiisianiimportantivariableiinitheieffectsiofisocialicompet encyiamongichildren 3.iTeachersishouldirecognizeithatitheiemotionalibondibetweenitheichildiandihisiparentimayibeiunconscio uslyitransferreditoitheirelationshipibetweenitheiteacherianditheichild 4.iChildreniwhoicanisecurelyiself- regulateiandiwhoibelieveitheyicaniachieveihaveiaigreateriabilityitoisuccessfullyifaceidifficultiesiandimas teriacademicilearningimaterial Temperamenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Aicollectiveisetiofiinbornitraitsithatihelpitoiconstructiaichild'siapproachitoitheiworld -Basediuponitheichild'simood,ienvironment,iactivity,iandithresholdiforireactingitoistimulation Threeibasicigroups: 1.iThei"easy"ichildiisigenerallyiiniaipositiveimoodiandiadaptsieasilyitoinewisituations
-Thisiisiaiperiodiwhenichildrenitransformisymbolsiintoimake-believeiplay -Pretendingihelpsitoibuildiaichild'siimagination Rough-and-tumbleiplayi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Beginsiatiaboutitheiendiofiearlyichildhood,ibutiisimostipopulariduringimiddleichildhood -Canibeiinitheiformiofitag,ichasing,iwrestling,ietc. Gamesiwithirulesiplayi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Childreniofteniplayigamesiduringielementaryischool -Theseigamesiofteniincludeirulesiandiareicompetitiveiandipleasurable -Preschoolichildreniplayigames,ibutitheirigamesiareimoreiinitermsiofitakingiturns -Gamesiplay/ gamesiwithirulesiplayiinvolvesiaigivenisetiofirulesiandideclinesiaroundiagei12,ibuticanibeiengagediinithro ughoutilife -Itiisiusuallyireplacedibyipracticeiplayiandiorganizedisportsiasichildreniapproachiadolescence Educationaliimplicationsiofiplayi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersimustiencourageiplayisinceimuchiofitheichild'sicognitiveiadvancesiinilearningitakeipl aceiduringiplay 2.iTeachersimustibeiawareiofiage- appropriateiformsiofiplayiforiclassroomiactivitiesiandiencourageiimaginativeiplayiwheneveriappropriat e 3.iTeachersicaniuseiplayitoihelpichildrenireleaseiphysicalienergy 4.iTeachersishouldibeiawareithatiplayihelpsichildrenitoibuildisocialiinteractionsiamongipeers Growthiandidevelopment:iInfancyi(birth-2iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Infantsigrowifasteriduringithisiperiodithaniatianyiotheritime -Boysiandigirlsihaveiaboutitheisameiweightiandiheight,iwithigirlsigrowingionlyislightlyislowerithaniboy s Growthiandidevelopment:iEarlyichildhoodi(2-6iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Muchiofitheichild'si"babyifat"idisappearsiasiarmsiandilegsigrowilonger -Duringitheipreviousistageiofidevelopment,iinfantsianditoddlersihadiaiprotrudingiabdomenibecauseithei riinternaliorgansigrewifasterithanitheibodyicavity -Thisiisinoilongeritrueiduringiearlyichildhood -Theidecreaseiiniweightiduringiearlyichildhoodiisiattributeditoitheichild'siabilityitoiwalk,icouplediwithith eifactithatibodyitissuesistartigrowingiatiaislowerirate -Girlsitenditoihaveimoreifattyitissueithaniboys,ibutibecauseiboysihaveimoreimuscleitissue,iboysiandigirlsi measureiiniweightiandiheightisomewhatiequally -Ifithereiisianyigenderidifferenceiinigrowth,iboysitenditoibeislightlyitalleriandiheavier Growthiandidevelopment:iMiddleichildhoodi(7-11iyearsiold)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Manyichildrenigrowiabouti 2 iinchesiperiyeariuntiliagei 11 -Significantichangesitakeiplaceiduringithisiperiodiinitheidifferenceiinigrowthibetweeniboysiandigirls -Aroundiagei6,igirlsiareitypicallyishorteriandiweightilessithaniboys,ibutifromiagei10- 12,ibothiboysiandigirlsiareiaboutitheisameisize -Duringithisiperiod,ithereiareialsoivastidifferencesibetweeniboysiandigirlsiregardingitheiriabilityitoiuseifi neiandigrossimotoriskills
-Boys'ilegiandiarmimuscleicoordinationiisistronger,ihelpingithemitoijumpifarther,irunifaster,icatch,ithrow ,iandikickiballsifarther -Thisiisiaiperiodithatichildrenibeginihandwritingiinsteadiofiprinting -Girlsitenditoihaveianiedgeiinifineimotoriabilities,ibeingiableitoihaveimoreicoordinatedihand- manipulationiskills Growthiandidevelopment:iAdolescencei(12-18iyears)i-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii-Theistartiofithisiperiodibeginsiwithipuberty -Itiisiaitimeiofigrowthispurtsiforibothiboysiandigirls -Aroundiagei12,igirlsitenditoibeitallerithaniboysiandiweighialmosti 3 ilbsimore -Aroundiagei13-14,igirlsiloseitheiriedgeionigrowth,iandiboysiexceedigirlsiiniheightiandiweight -Byiagei18,iboysiareiabouti 4 iinchesitalleriandi 20 ilbsiheavier -Accelerationiofilargeimotoriphysicalistrengthiiniboys -Boysitenditoibeiclumsyiatifirstidueitoitheifastigrowthiofitheiriarmsiandilegs,ibutiquicklyiacquireianieaseio fimovement -Participationiiniathleticsiimprovesiphysicalistrengthiandicoordination -Ifitheiadolescentiisisuccessfuliatiathletics,ihisiself- esteemicanibeihighlyiboostedisinceithisibringsihimiapprovalifromihisipeers -Teensishowiaiconsiderableiinterestiinibodyiimage -Sinceibodyiimageiisisoiimportantitoiteens,isomeiteensimayistruggleiwithieatingidisordersisuchiasianore xiainervosai(intenseifeariofigainingiweight)ioribulimiainervosai(binge-and-purgeieatingipattern) Educationaliimplicationsiofiphysicalidevelopmenti-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii1.iTeachersicaniprepareidailyiage- appropriateiopportunitiesiforichildrenitoifreelyiexpressithemselvesithroughigrossiandifineimotoriactiviti es 2.iTeachersishouldiunderstandiindividualiphysicalidifferencesiandidesigniactivitiesiaccordingly 3.iTeachersicaniidentifyiphysicalidifferencesiinigenderidevelopment Prenataliinfluencesi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Theifetusiisivulnerableitoienvironmentaliagentsithaticanicauseiabnormalitiesiknowniasiteratogens -Teratogensipreventiorimodifyicellidivisionisoitheipotentialidangeritoitheiembryoiisitheigreatestiduringit heiembryonicistagei(2-8iweeks)iwhenitheiinfant'sibodyipartsiandimajoriorgansiareiforming -Commoniteratogensitoiavoid:
Alcohol,iwhichicanicauseimentaliretardationifromifetalialcoholisyndromei(FAS),ilowibirthiweight,iandi unusualifacialicharacteristics ---Nicotine,iwhichicanicauseimiscarriage,ilowibirthiweight,iandipoorirespiratoryifunctioning
Drugs,iwhichicanicauseibirthidefects,iprematureibirths,ilowibirthiweight,ineurologicalidisturbances,ihig histartleirate,ilearningidisabilities,iandislowedimotoridevelopment -Othericonsiderationsiinitheidevelopmentiofitheifetus: ---Mother'siagei(olderiwomeniandiadolescentiwomeniareiatiriskiforibirthicomplications) ---Mother'sinutritionalicareiduringipregnancy Nutritioniandiobesityi-i iiiiiiiiiiii☑️ ii- Abouti1%iofitheipopulationiofichildreniandiadolescentsifollowialliofitheirecommendedidietaryiguidelin es
