Download Critical Thinking: Propositions, Arguments, and Cognitive Biases and more Exams Advanced Education in PDF only on Docsity!
Critical Thinking - correct answer ✅The ability to think carefully about thinking and reasoning/to be critical of your own reasoning. Propositions - correct answer ✅The fundamental building blocks of arguments. They are a statement that can be true or false. Simple propositions - correct answer ✅They have no internal logic structure, they are simply true or false based on how the world is. Freedom should be the highest value for its citizens. - correct answer ✅Simple proposition Complex propositions - correct answer ✅They have internal logic structure, and whether they are true or false depends on if their parts are true or false. If freedom should be the highest value for its citizens, then we should promote it in our laws and policies. - correct answer ✅Complex proposition Argument - correct answer ✅Contains at least two statements or propositions: a conclusion and one or more premises that lend support to the conclusion. Premise - correct answer ✅A proposition that supports the conclusion. Conclusion Indicators - correct answer ✅Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result.
Premise Indicators - correct answer ✅Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, indicated by. Conclusion - correct answer ✅The claim that the whole argument is intended to support or prove. Deduction - correct answer ✅Arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion. Types of arguments that are deductive - correct answer ✅Mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition. Induction - correct answer ✅Arguments where the premises make the conclusion likely to be true. Types of arguments that are inductive/ampliative - correct answer ✅Analogies, authority, casual inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations. P1: Monty is in Bejing P2: It is impossible to get here from Bejing in an afternoon Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party - correct answer ✅Deductive argument P1: Monty is really shy P2: Monty rarely goes to parties Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party - correct answer ✅Inductive/ampliative argument
C: Therefore, Y No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am in Rome. C: Therefore, I am in Italy - correct answer ✅Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) Affirming the Consequent basic structure - correct answer ✅P1. If X, then Y P2. Y C: Therefore, X Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I am in Rome, then I'm in Italy. P2. I am in Italy. C: Therefore, I am in Rome - correct answer ✅Affirming the Consequent Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) basic structure - correct answer ✅P1. If X, then Y P2. Not Y C: Therefore, not X
No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Italy C: Therefore, I am not in Rome - correct answer ✅Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) Denying the Antecedent basic structure - correct answer ✅P1. If X, then Y P2. Not X C: Therefore, not Y Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Rome C: Therefore, I am not in Italy - correct answer ✅Denying the Antecedent Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning - correct answer ✅An argument where the premise restates the conclusion instead of supporting it. Arguing in a circle. P1. The Earth is ball-shaped C: Therefore, the Earth is a sphere - correct answer ✅Begging the Question (Informal Fallacy)
Heuristic - correct answer ✅a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy that doesn't work all of the time, but one that gets us where we need to go most of the time. _______ can become issues when we want to engage in good reasoning, fair- mindedness, or intellectual virtue. - correct answer ✅Heuristics The Representative Heuristic - correct answer ✅a mental Heuristic whereby people try to understand/judge a situation by means of situations in memories that bear similarities to it Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic - correct answer ✅When someone clusters their guesses around a given anchor The Anchoring Bias - correct answer ✅a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information The Availability Heuristic - correct answer ✅When one makes a judgment regarding a new situation using only information that is readily available without considering additional information or evidence that may affect the situation. Algorithm Bubble - correct answer ✅The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on. A true random sample - correct answer ✅The way individuals were put into the sample was done using random methods that were not biased in favor of any particular subgroup.
A true representative sample - correct answer ✅Individuals in the sample are varied enough to give a good idea of all beliefs and ideas. Statistics can be __________ very easily. - correct answer ✅manipulated Selection bias - correct answer ✅This bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population. A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast. Which bias does this conclusion illustrate? - correct answer ✅Selection bias A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views. Which bias does this reasoning reflect? - correct answer ✅Representative Bias When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which bias does this best represent? - correct answer ✅Availability Bias What kind of actions can strong critical thinkers take to minimize bias in their thinking? - correct answer ✅Broaden sources of information and slow their thought processes.
An Irrelevant Appeal - correct answer ✅Any kind of appeal to a factor, consideration, or reason that isn't relevant to the argument at hand. It is used as a reason/answer to the question rather than a distraction. Appeal to Authority Fallacy - correct answer ✅When we trust an authority on one subject to speak on a different subject they don't have expertise in. Appeal to Force Fallacy - correct answer ✅When a threat is used as a justification for the claim in an argument. "If you don't believe this, then I'm going to hurt you" - correct answer ✅Appeal to Force Fallacy Appeal to the People (Ad Populum) Fallacy - correct answer ✅Appealing to the popularity of a thing, idea, or practice in order to justify that thing, idea, or practice. The Appeal to Consequences Fallacy - correct answer ✅occurs when an arguer attempts to persuade the audience to accept a conclusion based on the perceived consequence of that conclusion The Fallacy of Equivocation - correct answer ✅Using the same term in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings. "Children are a headache. Aspirin will make headaches go away. Therefore, aspirin will make children go away." - correct answer ✅The Fallacy of Equivocation
The Slippery Slope Fallacy - correct answer ✅This fallacy is committed when one event is said to lead to some other event via a chain of intermediary events. The Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy - correct answer ✅When someone cherry-picks data to suit which conclusion they'd like to prove. They already know the conclusion they want before researching. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc/Post Hoc Fallacy - correct answer ✅Occurs when someone mistakes correlation for causation. Just because something regularly follows another thing, doesn't mean that it is caused by that other thing. As the saying goes, correlation does not imply causation Nowhere is this fallacy more in evidence than in our evaluation of the performance of presidents of the United States. Everything that happens during or immediately after their administrations tends to be pinned on them. - correct answer ✅Post Hoc Fallacy The Fallacy of Hasty Generalization - correct answer ✅When one jumps to a conclusion about a group of people, things, or events, but does so too quickly and without enough evidence or with too small a sample. Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit? - correct answer ✅Post Hoc Fallacy
