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Information Processing
Sub-topic:- Data and Information
Data
Data is raw unprocessed facts, for example the number 32, 28, 36 represent data. We do not know what the three numbers represent though, they could mean just about anything, such as a student’s marks in tests, the colour codes for paints, or even a model’s measurements.
Information
Information is processed data. The example above therefore can indicate how well or
poorly the student is performing, or the range of colour paints available, or how slim the model is.
Knowledge
Knowledge is the application of information to solve a problem or to make a decision.
- These terms will assist in developing and understanding and appreciation for information processing and information systems.
Data Processing
Data processing is the manipulation of data to obtain information. So taking one of the examples above, finding the average of the three numbers gives an indication of how well the student is performing. Using computers to process information is called information processing.
Information System
Information system is the term given to any record-keeping system. We come across information system all the time. Some examples of information systems are:
- Address book
- (^) Dictionaries
- Telephone directories
- School Timetable
What these examples have in common is that data has been collected (input), processed and displayed (output) in order to provide useful information.
Information is collected for the purposes of culture, leisure, work research and everyday life. In organizations, however, it is mainly used for planning and decision making. There are many sources of information, for example:
- Measurement: sales, productivity output, cash receipts
- Informal communication: word of mouth, meetings
- Publications: hurricane preparedness tips and trends in chronic diseases
- (^) Questionnaires: opinion polls, market research.
We will consider sources of information under three main headings as follow:
- Print Materials
- Electronic Sources
- Personal Contacts
For the purpose of this exercise, the sources under the main headings will be sub-divided as follow:
Print Materials 2.1..Books 2.1...1... Reference Books 2.1...1....() a Encyclopedias 2.1...1....() b Dictionaries 2.1...1....() c (^) Directories 2.1...1....() d Yearbooks and Almanacs 2.1...1....() e Handbooks and Manuals 2.1...1....() f Indexes 2.1...1....() g Geographical Reference Sources 2.1...2... (^) Textbooks 2.1...3... General Fiction and Non-Fiction Books 2.2..Periodicals 2.2...1... Journals 2.2...2... Magazines 2.2...3... Newspapers 2.3..Pamphlets
(^) Electronic Sources 3.1..Local Sources 3.1...1... CD ROMs 3.1...2... Electronic Databases 3.2..Remote Sources 3.2...1... Online Databases
3.2...2... World Wide Web 3.2...3... Digital Libraries
- Personal Contacts 2.1...4... Word of Mouth 2.1...5... Contact by mail (incl. e- mail) 2.1...6... Interviews 2.1...7... (^) Observations
- Security - the accessibility of data by authorized users and the prevention of any unauthorized users from accessing the data. The security of information determines its availability to users for problem solving and decision-making.
- (^) Confidentiality – the availability of data only to a very restricted set of users. It must not be viewed by anyone for whom it is not intended. The data must be secure to ensure its confidentiality.
- Value – the usefulness of information to facilitate problem solving and decision making and to enable the organization to gain advantage over its competitors. Since information has its value it is a saleable commodity and it is shareable. It may be presented on different media and in a variety of formats.
- Distortion – the presentation of data to induce a particular presentation. Data may also be disguised in order to discourage certain interpretations.
Information as a commodity
An information commodity is an item of information that can be bought or sold. For
example, with online information you may have to pay a fee every time that you access the information.
The major types of information for sale are:
- Databases, especially banking and other financial information which give demographic, tracking and buying trends.
- Information retrieval systems, such as abstracting and indexing services
- Full text databases and reference materials such as encyclopaedias
- Other less formal, publications such as subject-specialized bulletin boards, which in some cases may replace the more traditional journals.
Information for decision making
An organization about to start any major project must first gather information. Planning enables the organization to:
- Define the scope of the project to be conducted
- Identify available resources
- Recognize any problem areas
- (^) Arrange a sequence of tasks necessary to complete the project
- Specify levels of performance and methods of measurement
Adequate information is required before planning can properly start. Ongoing gathering and production of new information continues throughout the planning process.
Information sources can include sales reports, work schedules, site maps and building
material estimates. The amount of detail required for planning will depend on the level at which it occurs with the organization.
Levels of decision making within an organization
The manager of an organization planning for long-term projects will require a summary
report for the organization. This is different to a supervisor planning a work sheet schedule for a power plant. He may require the names of workers and the shift hours worked in the previous weeks. Decision making in an organization occurs at three levels:
- Operational level
- Tactical level
- Strategic Level
What happens if two persons want to change data at the same
time?
Let us suppose that two clerks working in two departments (IT and Mathematics) at a
school were accessing a data record for student Michael Packer (see diagram above). The first clerk wishes to adjust the mark received in Information Technology from the original 75% to 57%. The second clerk wishes to adjust the mark received in
Mathematics from 18% to 81% (typo errors in both subjects). What happens when the records are saved to the main database? Will both changes be accepted?
Data changes in this manner can lead to problems of data accuracy when the data records are saved. The clerk who saves their change first will have their work overwritten by the
clerk who save their changes last, which of course will erase the changes made by the
first clerk.
How can this problem be avoided?
Good databases avoid this problem by allowing only one user or system to access a data record at a time. When an attempt is made by a second person to access the same record, a message may be provided (see diagram below).
Computer systems, which provide shared access to data, must have security features in place to prevent users from gaining access to data which they are not authorized to view or modify. The users of the computer system should be provided with their own usernames and passwords for the log in process. There are also access privileges depending on the user’s level. For example, a student at the school will be allowed access to certain software such as word processing, perhaps e-mail facilities and limited Internet access. A clerk on the other hand will have access to student records, personnel records, Internet access, e-mail, and payroll programs. The network administrator will have the highest level of access, including data records of usernames and password and the network administration and security software.
Class Activity:
- (^) List three possible sources of data.
- Explain the difference between data, information, knowledge and information processing.
- Describe three characteristics of useful information.
- Identify three activities which can take place when an organization conducts planning.
- Distinguish between the strategic, tactical and operational levels of decision making in an organization.
- Explain how computer system should prevent multiple users from accessing the same file simultaneously.
DATA
INFORMATION
DATA IS PROCESSED
