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UNIT 1: SENTENCE TYPES
CLAUSES
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A clause is a group of words that contains
(at least) a subject and a verb.
Clauses Not clauses
ecology is a science
because pollution causes
cancer
to protect the environment
after working hard
Independent clauses
An independent clause contains a S and a V and expresses a complete thought. It can
stand alone by itself.
E.g. Students normally spend four years in college.
Dependent clauses
A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that … followed
by (at least) a subject and a verb.
E.g. …when the semester was over…
Practice 1: Put a tick (V) next to the independent clauses and a period (.) after them.
- Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers
- Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times
- During long journeys through several time zones, the body’s inner clock is disrupted
- For some reasons, travel from west to east causes greater jet lag than travel from east to west
- Also, changes in work can cause jet flag
- When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night shift, for example
- Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag
- There are some ways to minimize it (Oshima)
Practice 2: Determine whether the underlined word groups are dependent clauses,
independent clauses, or not a clause.
- Although it was raining, Maria went for a jog at Civitan Park.
- Brianna eats chocolate whenever she gets a poor grade in math.
- After the flood, the family moved into a temporary shelter.
- While walking at the park, John saw a raccoon eating potato chips.
- When you finish your homework, please take the dog for a walk.
- After Juan completed the assignment, he swam laps at the gym.
- Christa left home at 4:00 a.m. since she had to drive to Atlanta for a meeting.
- Before completing the assignment, Evan decided to eat a quick lunch
SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and
it expresses a complete thought.
A. Some students like to study in the mornings.
S V
B. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
S V
Note: - Sentence B contains a compound verb.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator.
The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so****. ( FANBOYS )
Note: - Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.
A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
S V , coor S V
B. Alejandro played football, so Marie went shopping.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or
when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
Sub S V , S V
B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
S V sub S V
Note: - When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator, a comma is required at
the end of the dependent clause.
- When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the
middle, no comma is required.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
E.g. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't
found anyone to go with.
- independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go lately"
UNIT 2: SIMPLE SENTENCES
1. Definition
A simple sentence is a group of word that expresses a complete thought.
E.g. He had given the girl an apple.
A simple sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a period, question mark, or
exclaimation mark.
E.g. The baby cried.
2. Compounds subjects and verbs
A simple sentence can have two subjects
E.g. Kate and I are friends.
A sentence can have a verb phrase
E.g. I go to the bank after work.
A sentence could have both two subjects and two verbs
E.g. Kate and I sang and danced.
3. Sentence elements
A simple sentence has two main parts: the subject and the verb. Sometimes there is an object
and/or other information after the verb.
Subject is the person or thing that does the action. The subject can be a noun or a pronoun.
E.g. Maria and her sister go to piano class every week.
The verb tells what the subject is going. The verb:
is usually an action word, such as go, speak, write, swim, and watch.
sometimes does not have much actions, such as be (am, is, are, was, were), like,
want …
- can have two (or more) actions for one subject
E.g. They create and play beautiful music.
Object is the thing or person after the main verb. The object:
- can be two (or more) nouns/pronouns
E.g. Maria’s brother plays guitar and violin.
Other information: Sentences can contain other information after the verb and the object,
such as time words/phrases or place phrases. When a sentence has a time word/phrase and a
place phrase, the time word/phrase usually comes last.
Practice 1. Read these sentences about making tuna salad. Underline each subject.
Circle each verb. Put a box around any around any object.
- Tuna salad is easy to make.
- The ingredients are simple and cheap.
- Two ingredients are tuna fish and mayonnaise.
- I also use onions, salt, and pepper.
- First, I cut up the onion.
- Then I add the tuna fish and the mayonnaise.
- Finally, I add some salt and a lot of pepper.
- Without a doubt, tuna salad is my favourite food. 4. A fragment – an incomplete sentence
Practice 2. Identify each group of words as a fragment (F) or a complete sentence (S).
Then add the missing part of the sentence to the fragments to make them complete
sentences.
f. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun
joined by "or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is
closest to the verb.
Example: The student or the committee members write every day.
g. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone,"
"everybody," "anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no
one" are singular and require a singular verb.
Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.
h. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
Example: Education is the key to success.
i. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings,
proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.
k. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb.
Since "there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Example: There is little administrative support.
l. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered
singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee,"
"family," and "class."
Example: The group meets every week.
Practice 3: Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.
Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.
Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.
George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.
Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.
One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.
The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.
The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.
The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.
Either answer (is, are) acceptable.
1 2. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.
1 3. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.
- (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?
1 5. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite
subject.
1 6. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.
1 7. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?
1 8. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.
1 9. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!
2 0. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.
- I wanted to buy a baby Chihuahua. I started to save my money.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Gillian did not like to read. She was not very good at it.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Pam liked Wayne. Lenna also like Wayne.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- The little boy did not like going to school. He went anyway.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- You can cry like a baby. You can clean your room like an adult.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- She didn’t want to play with Jill. She didn’t want to play with Tim.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Arleen could not play with that boy. Arleen could not play with that other boy.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Compound sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
A compound sentence can be formed with:
Independent Clause ; + Conjunctive Adverbs, + Independent Clause
Coordinating Conjunctions Conjunctive Adverbs Meaning
And furthermore, besides,
moreover, also
additional idea
but, yet however, nevertheless, still,
nonetheless
opposite idea
Or otherwise choice, ‘or else’
so consequently, therefore,
thus, accordingly, hence
result
E.g.
- When using conjunctive adverbs to link simple sentences, put a semicolon before and a
comma after the adverb. Remember, both sides of the joining word are complete sentences
and must make sense on their own.
Practice 2: Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
- You need to put more effort into your work; ________________, you won’t get a passing
grade.
A. Moreover
B. Otherwise
C. Unless
D. Instead
- We wanted to spend the day at the beach; ______________________, it rained so we
stayed home.
A. Moreover
B. Unless
C. However
D. Additionally
- She is a very smart girl; __________________, it’s not at all surprising that she gets such
good grades.
A. Again
B. Besides
C. Contrarily
D. Therefore
- Jared is a millionaire; __________________, his brother Jeremy is always flat broke.
A. In contrast
B. Accordingly
C. Again
D. Likewise
- He felt he couldn’t tell the truth about what happened; ___________________, he lied.
A. In contrast
B. Likewise
- I don’t want to practice playing with violin. I don’t want to disobey my mother.
- I want to own my own company. I want to pay all my workers a lot of money.
- I need to go to the store. I’m feeling too sick to drive.
- Rabbits make good pets. They don’t make too much noise and they are clean.
- I want to go to the circus. I want to ride a pony.
- I didn’t do my homework. My parents punished me.
- I have never visited Asia. I have never visited Africa.
- You can make a big poster. You can make a little clay statue.
Practice 5 : Make 5 compound sentences
UNIT 4: COMPLEX SENTENCES
I. RELATIVE CLAUSES
Definition
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly
a noun.
For example, the phrase "the man who wasn't there" contains the noun “man”, which is
modified by the relative clause “who wasn't there”.
- A relative clause can also modify
- a pronoun , as in "he to whom I have written", or
- a noun phrase which already contains a modifier, as in "the black panther in the
tree, which is about to pounce". The complete phrase (modified noun phrase plus
modifying relative clause) is also a noun phrase.
- Relative clauses are introduced by a special class of pronouns called relative pronouns ; in
the previous example, “who” is a relative pronoun.
- Relative pronouns are WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH, THAT.
Defining relative clause
- These describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from other nouns
of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the
noun.
The man who told me this refused to give me his name
“who told me this” is the relative clause. If we omit this, it is not clear what man we
are talking about. Notice that there is no comma between a noun and a defining
clause.
- Defining clause usually follow the + noun, but they can also be used with a/an +
noun.
- Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses
Practice 1: Fill in the blanks to make relative clause.
- Alexander Flemming ______ discovered penicillin received the Nobel Prize in 1945.
- The book _______ I need can’t be found in the library.
- Here is the beach ________ is the safest for swimmers.
- Do you know the American woman ________ name is Margaret Mitchell?
- Jim ________ I have known for ten years is one of my closest friends.
- John found a cat _______ leg was broken.
- Don’t sit on the chair the leg ________ is broken.
- This tree _________ branches are dry should be cut down.
- The child smiled at the woman ________ he didn’t know.
- That woman _______ name I don’t remember is a doctor.
Exercise 2: Use a relative pronoun to combine each pair of the sentences below.
- You sent me a present. Thank you very much for it.
- Romeo and Juliet were lovers. Their parents hated each other.
- This is Mrs Jones. Her son won the championship last year.
- I was sitting in a chair. It suddenly collapsed.
- This is the story of a man. His wife suddenly loses her memory.
- Charlie Chaplin died in 1977. His films amused millions of people in the world.
- Please post these letters. I wrote them this morning.
- The buildings is the church. Its tower can be seen from afar.
- Mary and Margaret are twins. You met them yesterday.
- I’ll introduce you to the man. His support is necessary for your project.
Exercise 3: Rewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that it means exactly
the same as the one printed before it.
- The man that we are talking about is a famous scientist.
The man about ……………………………………………………….
- The tree that we picked these fruits from is in front of the house.
The tree from …………………………………………………………
- The city that we were born in is very large.
The city in ……………………………….……………………………
- Do you remember the day? We first met on that day.
Do you remember the day on ………………………………………
….
- The dog was very frightned. The boys threw stones at it.
The dog at ………………………………………………………… …..
- The road was built in 1980. We are driving on it.
The road on …………………………………………………………….
- Did you see the letter? It came yesterday morning.
Did you …………………………………………………………………
- This is Rex Hotel, and it is the biggest hotel in the city.
This is Rex Hotel, which ………………………………………………..
Exercise 4: Complete the following sentences, using Relative Clauses:
- I don’t know the reason ………………………………………………….
- They have found the handbag ……………………………………………
- He doesn’t like people ……………………………………………………
- The police arrested the man ………………………………………………
- Do you know the country ………………………………………………...
- I don’t like the women ……………………………………………………
- The woman............................................................... is my mother.
- The man.................................................................... is my father.
- She has lost the bicycle …………………………………………………..
- This is the house ………………………………………………………….
E.g., I lent him the money because he needed it.
As/ Since Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others.
6. Clauses of purpose - Clauses of purpose are usually infinitival, introduced by in order to, so as to, in order
for N, to.
E.g., I left early to catch the train
They left the door open in order for me to hear the baby.
- Finite clause of purpose may be introduced by so that, so (informal), in order that
(formal):
E.g., John visited London in order that/ so/ so that he could see the Buckingham
palace
7. Clauses of result
Clauses of result may be introduced by so that, so (informal)
E.g., We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden soon looked beautiful.
Practice 1: Combine each pair of sentences below so as to form a single sentence
containing a conditional or concessive clause.
- Stand up here. Then you can see the mountain clearly.
- Stand up. Otherwise you won’t be able to see anything.
- Stand up here. That is the only way you can see any thing.
- We strained our eyes, but we couldn’t see anything.
- You can strain your eyes, but still you won’t be able to see anything.
- You could have the best binoculars in the world. But still you won’t be able to see
anything more.
- I will let you come with me on one condition. You must do exactly what I tell you.
- I am sure this story is untrue. Otherwise, it would be an absolute scandal.
- I am sure that never really happened. Otherwise, we would all be dead now.
- You might need some help at some time. Then you must let me know.
- It doesn’t matter what I say. He always does something different.
- You can tell me or not. But any case I will find out the truth.
1 4. I have no idea what the solution is. But we shall certainly find it.
- His difficulties was very great indeed. But he always overcame them in the end.
Practice 2: Use the following sets of words and phrases to form complete sentences.
- When/ you/ live/ Washington/ you/ meet/ Robert H. Davidson?
- Since/ I/ meet/ you/ I / have/ be/ read/ your book.
- Once/ your book/ publish/ it/ will / sell/ very rapidly.
- When/ you/ be/ Rome/ do/ as/ Rome/ do.
- Until/ you/ ask/ speak/ you/ would/ well/ advise/ remain/ silent.
- Before/ he /serve/ army/ he/ be/ student.
- While/ he/ be/ army/ he/ learn/ a great deal/ electricity.
