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ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT

JOHN PALLISTER

TEACHING GUIDE

A Core Text for O Level and IGCSE®

SECOND EDITION

Agriculture and

the environment

Water and its

management

Oceans and

fisheries

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about:

n soil composition

n what makes soils suitable for plant growth

n different types of agriculture

n techniques used to increase agricultural yields

n impact of agricultural practices

n soil erosion (causes, impacts, and management)

n strategies for sustainable agriculture

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about:

n global water distribution n the water cycle n sources of water supply for people n water usage, quality, and availability n multipurpose dam projects n sources of water pollution n impact and management of water pollution n managing water-related diseases

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about:

n the resource potential of the oceans n world fisheries and their exploitation n exploitation of the oceans (overfishing) and its impact n management of the harvesting of marine species

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER (^5)

20 27 36

Human

population

Managing

natural hazards

The atmosphere

and human

activities

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about:

n five natural hazards and how they affect people

n tectonic hazards: earthquakes and volcanoes

n their causes, impacts, and management

n climatic hazards: tropical cyclones, flooding, and drought

n their causes, impacts, and management

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about:

n the structure and composition of the atmosphere n atmospheric pollution, its causes and impacts n smog, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, and enhanced greenhouse effect n causes, impacts, and strategies for their reduction n strategies for managing atmospheric pollution

OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about:

n distribution and density of population n growth of the human population n population structure n managing human population size

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER (^8)

41 49 56

vii

Introduction

Environmental Management, Second Edition, is based on the new Environmental

Management syllabus (Cambridge O level, 5014; IGCSE®, 0680). The focus of the

revised syllabus is sustainable development in a world where the Earth’s natural

resources and life-sustaining systems are being threatened by increasing human

populations and their growing impact.

The revised syllabus covers a broad field of study, drawing upon content from more

specialized disciplines, notably biology, earth science, geography, and economics. It

begins from the educationally sound premise that students need to have some basic

knowledge and understanding of the Earth’s natural systems and how they work

before they consider the impacts of people, and how these can be managed in a

more sustainable way for future generations. The Earth’s four great natural systems,

lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere, provide the natural resources

that people need for survival and economic development.

Although the layout of the new syllabus is totally different from that of the older one,

now arranged under nine topics instead of four natural systems, the sequence of study

remains the same. What the Earth provides in the way of natural resources is covered

first. How these resources are used by people comes second. Third is the impact of

human use and development on the environment; important issues such as resource

depletion, environmental damage, and pollution are covered here. Finally, the topic

is rounded off by a study of management strategies to make future economic growth

and development more sustainable.

Therefore, Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of people

on the Earth’s resources, but also with the patterns of human behaviour necessary to

preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way, so that natural resources

will be preserved for the benefit of future generations. Simultaneously, it is recognized

that humans live with aspirations of an improved quality of life. A major aim of the

syllabus is to demonstrate to students that this does not inevitably have to be to the

detriment of the environment. For this reason, the syllabus refers to new methods and

technologies to increase output and manage the environment.

The syllabus has been written in a manner which presents students with a global

perspective. Of course, most of the decisions that affect the environment are taken

by individuals, officials, and governments at local, regional, or national levels. This is

why the use of local examples or case studies is encouraged. Opportunities for local

studies and investigations are suggested in some of the Activities in the book and

under the heading of ‘Further study’ in this guide. Often it is easier for students to

appreciate the nature and seriousness of environmental problems if they have had

personal experience of them. It should also make analysis of the merits and difficulties

of implementing strategies for their alleviation more meaningful. Students are in a

viii

better position to understand the varied views of local people and conflicting pressures

that arise.

The new syllabus specifies case studies, from one to three per topic. The examples

chosen for book use cover all syllabus needs. However, students do not have to use

the ones chosen in the book; they are not compulsory. If there is a suitable example in

the student’s home region or country, this can be used instead. Indeed, there are good

reasons for doing this. The more local the example, the more it is going to mean to a

student. If they have carried out their own study, it puts them in a stronger position to

comment upon the success or otherwise of new management strategies.

At all times students should be encouraged to think for themselves about environmental

issues and their management, and to express their opinions. It is hoped that the study

of Environmental Management, Second Edition, will allow them to do so in a more

informed manner. Questions included among the Activities invite students to recognize

advantages and disadvantages, or costs and benefits, before they are asked to choose

and justify the viewpoint they agree with most. These mirror the style used in some

examination questions. When it comes to marking student answers, what matters most

is the strength of the comment and justification, and not the viewpoint itself, although

some viewpoints are easier to support than others.

The theme of sustainable use and development of the Earth’s natural resources runs

all the way through the syllabus and this book. Students are encouraged to explore

the concept that we have not so much ‘inherited the world from our parents’ but

‘borrowed it from our children’. The needs of the present generation should be met

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The book’s content is more than sufficient for students to obtain a top examination

grade; nonetheless, one should continue to look out for more recent or better local

examples and use these in preference, but not in addition, to those in the book. In

answering examination questions, students are always allowed freedom of choice for

the example or case study used to illustrate the theme under study since none of the

case studies in the syllabus specifies a place or an example.

A syllabus grid has been included in this Teaching Guide, with the Environmental

Management Syllabus 5014 and 0680 topics and subtopics, followed by learning

outcomes. The page numbers refer to the textbook, indicating where these topics are

covered.

The syllabus grid will facilitate teachers in following the topics and subtopics and this

may also be shared with the students.

It is hoped that the syllabus and book’s approach will help students develop important

skills, such as environmental awareness, awareness of different opinions held by

others, and a willingness to express their own views, supported by knowledge and

Syllabus Grid: Environmental Management, 5014 and 0680

Topic

Learning Outcomes Pages Students should be able to:

1 Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

1.1 Formation of rocks

n ■ (^) describe and explain the rock cycle 2– n ■ (^) explain the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth

n ■ (^) describe methods of extraction: surface mining, subsurface mining

n ■ (^) discuss factors that affect decisions on extraction 8- 1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction

n ■ (^) describe and explain the environmental, economic, and social impacts of mineral extraction

1.4 Managing the effects of rock and mineral extraction

n ■ (^) describe and assess ways to restore landscapes affected by mining

Case study The Eden Project, Cornwall 22-

1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals

n ■ (^) define the terms ‘sustainable resource’ and ‘sustainable development’

n ■ (^) describe and assess strategies for sustainable use of rocks and minerals

2 Energy and the environment

2.1 Fossil fuel formation n■^ describe the formation of fossil fuels: coal, oil, and gas 29-

2.2 Energy resources and the generation of electricity

n ■ (^) classify energy resources as non-renewable and renewable 31 n ■ (^) describe how non-renewable and renewable resources are used to generate electricity

n ■ (^) describe environmental, economic, and social advantages and disadvantages of these resources

2.3 Energy demand

n■ (^) describe and explain factors that affect the demand for energy

2.4 Conservation and management of energy resources

n ■ (^) describe and explain the ways for efficient management of energy resources

n ■ (^) discuss research and development of new energy resources

2.5 Impact of oil pollution

n■ (^) describe causes and effects of oil pollution on marine and coastal ecosystems

2.6 Management of oil pollution

n ■ (^) discuss ways of reducing oil spills in marine and coastal regions

Case studies Oil pollution in Niger Delta; Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Gulf of Mexico

Agriculture and the environment

3.1 Soil composition n■^ describe and explain the composition of various soils 73- 3.2 Soils for plant growth n■^ describe soils as a medium for growth of plants 74- 3.3 Types of agriculture n■^ describe the different types of agriculture 77- 3.4 Increasing agricultural fields

n ■ (^) describe the different methods/techniques used to increase agricultural output

Topic

Learning Outcomes Pages Students should be able to:

3.5 Impact of agriculture

n■ (^) describe and explain the impact of agriculture on the environment and people

3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion

n■ (^) describe the causes and effects of soil erosion 92-

3.7 Managing soil erosion

n■ (^) describe and explain the different ways of reducing soil erosion

Case study Soil erosion and desertification, Niger 98-

3.8 Sustainable agriculture

n■ (^) describe and explain ways of practising sustainable agriculture

Water and its management

4.1 Global water distribution

n■ (^) state the distribution of water on Earth and its sources 104

4.2 The water cycle n■^ define and explain the water cycle 105-

4.3 Water supply

n■ (^) describe the sources of fresh water for human use 108- n ■ (^) describe surface water supplies and transfers for use 111- 4.4 Water usage n■^ know and describe various uses of fresh water 113-

4.5 Water quality and availability

n ■ (^) discuss availability of potable water across the world; define water-rich and water-poor countries; understand and explain difference in accessibility to water

n ■ (^) potential for water conflict between countries 118- 4.6 Multipurpose dam projects

n ■ (^) describe and assess multipurpose dam projects, their usefulness and impact, and sustainability

Case study Three Gorges Dam—multipurpose scheme 123- 4.7 Water pollution and its sources

n■ (^) describe the causes and sources of water pollution 125-

4.8 Impact of water pollution

n ■ (^) describe and explain the types of water pollution and their effects

4.9 Managing pollution of fresh water

n ■ (^) describe and explain the ways to manage pollution and improve water quality

Case study Water pollution management: River Clyde; water supply to Punjab villages

4.10 Managing water- related diseases

n ■ (^) know about malaria, a water-related disease; describe and assess ways to control malaria

n ■ (^) describe how cholera can be controlled 136- 5 Oceans and fisheries 138- 5.1 Oceans as a resource n■^ state the resource potential of the oceans 139-

5.2 World fisheries

n ■ (^) state the distribution of the major ocean currents 142- n ■ (^) explain the distribution of major fish populations n ■ (^) discuss El Niño’s impact on fish stocks along the Pacific coast of South America

5.3 Impact of the exploitation of the oceans

n ■ (^) describe and explain the effects of overfishing—causes and consequences

n ■ (^) describe how fish farming reduces exploitation of fisheries 152 Case studies Fish farming in Chile and Norway 153-

Topic

Learning Outcomes Pages Students should be able to:

7.3 Impact of atmospheric pollution

n ■ (^) know about and explain ways of dealing with impact of atmospheric pollution

7.4 Managing atmospheric pollution

n ■ (^) learn about the causes and effects of global warming, greenhouse effect

n ■ (^) describe and explain ways used by people, governments and individuals to reduce the impact of global warming

Case study New Delhi Smog 222- 8 Human Population 224-

8.1 Human population density and distribution

n ■ (^) learn about world population—density and distribution 225-

8.2 Changes in population size

n ■ (^) describe and explain growth curve, and the changes in human populations—birth and death rates

8.3 Population structure

n■ (^) describe the population structure in MEDCs and LEDCs; reasons for differences

8.4 Managing human population size

n■ (^) discuss and assess steps taken to manage population size 236, 239- Case study China and its ‘one child’ policy 237-

9 Natural ecosystems and human activities

9.1 Ecosystems

n ■ (^) define the terms ecosystem, population, community, habitat, niche

n ■ (^) describe biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of an ecosystem

n ■ (^) understand and explain photosynthesis, food chains, food web, trophic levels, ecological pyramids, respiration, and carbon cycle

9.2 Ecosystems under threat

n ■ (^) describe and explain causes and effects of damage to habitat

9.3 Deforestation

n■ (^) know about and explain causes and effects of deforestation

Case study Deforestation in Indonesia 259-

9.4 Managing forests

n■ (^) understand and explain the need for managing forests 262- n ■ (^) ecotourism 265

9.5 Measuring and managing biodiversity

n ■ (^) describe and evaluate methods for estimating biodiversity 266- n ■ (^) learn about and understand management strategies for conservation

n ■ (^) know about the importance of national parks, wildlife reserves, world biosphere reserves

Case study Biosphere Reserve in Guadeloupe Archipelago 276- n ■ (^) assess national and international strategies for conservation of species—plants and animals

Case study Conservation of Giant Pandas 280- n ■ (^) undersand and discuss ecotourism and its value 282-

environmentalmanagement

CHAPTER 1

Rocks, minerals, and their exploitation (pages 1–26)

This chapter starts with a study of the natural system, beginning with the three different types of rocks and their formation. It also includes a brief study of the Earth’s rock cycle.

After this introduction to the natural resources that the Earth provides, the next section is about the extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth—in other words, how people extract these natural resources for use in economic activities and for economic development.

The next topic focuses on the impact of rock and mineral extraction, negative and positive, on both the environment and people.

The final two topics are about strategies to reduce the negative impacts of rock and mineral extraction and to allow more sustainable use of rocks and minerals, in order to extend the use of the Earth’s finite resources further into the future.

In the Introduction (page 2), a brief outline of the Earth’s structure is given as background information for this topic, and for the later study of tectonic hazards (Chapter 6). The importance to people of the Earth’s crust is stressed. Despite its small depth, it is the crust which provides useful rocks and minerals, as well as the top layer of soil, vital for agriculture (Chapter 3).

1.1 FORMATION OF ROCKS (pages 2–5)

Syllabus coverage The rock cycle is about rock and mountain formation and their later destruction by weathering and erosion. In the beginning, all the rock which makes up the Earth’s surface came from volcanic activity, i.e. igneous rock. Volcanic activity creating new igneous rock is still widespread today (Chapter 6). Over many millions of years, rocks are broken down and carried away, accumulating in the bottom of oceans, before being compressed into new rock, which is sedimentary rock. Some rocks are changed by great heat and pressure into metamorphic rock. The formation of these three rock types is studied in turn (pages 3–5). By the use of photographs, students are encouraged to recognize differences by observation between these rock types in the landscape.

Key syllabus terms: rock cycle, igneous rock, sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock

Activities (page 5) Activity 1 is a summary exercise for which students are expected to select key pieces of information from the text: the use of the table format is suggested to make the summary clear and visual. The purpose of the first part of Activity 2 is simple identification of the four stages in the cycle. The second part should help students to appreciate that the cycle is part of a never ending process of old rock destruction and new rock formation, repeated many times, over millions of years.

environmentalmanagement

answer, especially as world market prices fluctuate so greatly, as is shown for the world price of gold in Figure 1.9. Stress to students that, whatever the mineral, similar wide variations in world market prices apply to its extraction.

Key syllabus terms geology, exploration, accessibility, supply and demand

Activities (page 11) For Activity 1 (a), students are required to study Figure 1.10 and interpret where mineral exploitation would be most and least likely to occur, based upon geology only. Option C is the only one where opencast mining is possible. Faulting in option A and folding in option B create geological problems for mining. Students could discuss whether it is folding or faulting which will cause the greater problems for mining. In 1 (b) students need to show that they understand that factors other than geology alone may be more important, although the much lower economic costs associated with surface and shallow mining as opposed to deep mining, could be argued as the factor of overwhelming importance.

Activity 2 is about the differences between opencast and deep mining.

Part (a) of Activity 3 is a practical skills exercise. A line graph is the most appropriate technique for showing this data because the oil price is an example of ‘continuous data’—there is always a current selling price of oil (just like there is always a current temperature). The line going up and down on the graph provided a visual picture of the great fluctuations in world market price of oil, typical for all minerals. Part (b) requires students to think about the advantages and disadvantages of changing oil prices; this is in advance of the study of fossil fuels in Chapter 2.

1.4 IMPACT OF ROCK AND MINERAL EXTRACTION (pages 12–19)

Syllabus coverage Mining without some environmental pollution is impossible. The text concentrates on the three types of pollution from mining—land, air, and water. Students should be encouraged to think about, as well as explain, why mining is allowed in National Parks (Figure 1.11) and why mining companies often do little to reduce the environmental impacts of their operations. Figure 1.1, and the Information Box with details about the size of Chuquicamata, show how big mining operations can be, increasing the potential for environmental damage. The Exam Tip about pollution sends a useful message to students: in examination answers, the term ‘pollution’ should always be qualified by reference to type.

In the text, environmental impacts are followed by reference to impacts on people to cover the ‘economic and social impacts of rock and mineral extraction’ part of the syllabus. Impacts on people can be positive as well as negative. For the sake of continuity, the negative human impacts are covered first, before the focus switches to the many positive effects of mining for economic growth and development. For many countries, especially developing countries on continents such as Africa, as well as in the Middle East, mining dominates economic activity and exports. For some, it is their main source of foreign exchange (Figure 1.15) and for a few countries, it can be their only source.

chapter 1 Rocks and minerals and their exploitation 9

The Exam Tip about the meaning of impact is so important for students that it is mentioned

again in later chapters. Of the key syllabus terms relating to economic impacts, infrastructure

is likely to be the one least understood, which is why it is defined in the Information Box.

The example of Cerro de Pasco (pages 18–19) is included because in extreme ways, it illustrates

many of the issues associated with the impacts of large scale mining. Mining offers the only

viable economic activity in this area, but some of the impacts on the environment, and more

particularly for people, are horrendous.

Key syllabus terms

habitat loss, noise pollution, water pollution, land pollution, air pollution, visual pollution, waste,

employment, local economy, national economy, infrastructure

Activities (page 14)

Activity 1 asks students to identify examples to illustrate some of the specific negative

environmental impacts of mining that are stated in the syllabus. Activity 2 is a broader question

aimed at the main focus of this section.

Activities (page 17)

Activity 1 is the human (social and economic) equivalent of Activity 1 on page 14. Activity 2 will

provide students with a simple check list for the advantages and disadvantages of mining. Activity

3 makes students look more carefully at the map of African countries and their dependence

on mineral exports. Perhaps the ‘two ways’ is best approached by first using the size of the

percentages, especially those that are more than 90 per cent, and secondly by referring to the

significant numbers of countries either with very high dependence on or with more than half

their income from mineral exports. Activity 4 invites students to consider the varied reactions

from local people, which always arise when proposals to begin or extend mining or quarrying

are put forward. Parts (a) and (b) are included to give a context, as well as requiring students

to practise their observational skills.

Activities (page 19)

Activity 1 is intended to set the scene. Activity 2 is a repeat of the disadvantages part of Activity 2

page 17, but this time for a specific example (instead of general disadvantages). The most likely

position on the line drawn for Activity 3 (a) will be towards the 100 per cent end. However, the

most important thing is that it should reflect the explanation given in part (b). Strong economic

arguments in (b) could support a position closer to the middle of the line in (a). Activity 4 is an

Internet search limited in scope so that it should be quick and easy.

Further study

If no local, regional, or national mining issue exists to be investigated by students, an issue of

greater international concern could be a focus for personal investigation, such as proposals to

extend the exploration for minerals into environmentally sensitive areas like the Arctic Ocean.

chapter 1 Rocks and minerals and their exploitation 11

1.6 SUSTAINABLE USE AND CONSERVATION OF ROCKS AND

MINERALS (pages 23–26)

Syllabus coverage

Conservation has been added to the topic heading used in the syllabus, because this is why

more sustainable use is necessary. Since this is just the first of many syllabus references to

sustainability, key definitions have been placed in an Information Box near the beginning. It

should make it easier for students to refer back to them when studying later topics. The basic

theme is that present rates of mining and mineral use are unsustainable because most mineral

resources are finite, some with perhaps surprisingly low life expectancies, as shown in Figure

1.22. Five strategies for sustainable use and conservation are then described and commented

upon in turn.

Key syllabus terms

sustainable resource, sustainable development, increased efficiency, recycle, legislation

Activities (page 26)

Activity 1 is about recycling and increased efficiency, two of the main syllabus themes in this

section. Activity 2 requires students to study Figure 1.23 more closely. Hopefully they will give

A as their answer and explain in terms of lower need for consuming extra resources, such as

energy for transport and for recycling the glass in the glass factory. In Activity 3, part (a) is a

practical task, part (b) asks for description of what their graph shows, while part (c) tests students’

understanding of the environmental benefits of the changes between 2000 and 2014. Activity

4 broadens out the area of study—essentially to look at some of the differences in attitudes

between richer developed countries and poorer developing countries. The basic explanation is

that greater wealth allows more opportunities for caring for the environment, although it is fair

to add that people and local authorities in developed countries often need to be led towards

more sustainable methods by pressure from conservation groups, international organizations,

and governments.

Further study

Recycling is the most likely topic for local study. What types of waste does the student’s family

generate? What happens to this waste? How much of it is recycled? Do the authorities provide

any recycling services? What improvements could be made?

Increased efficiency in use of energy is another possible theme. What types of energy does

the student’s family consume and for what uses? Is the family’s consumption increasing? Can

anything be done to reduce the family’s total consumption while still maintaining its quality

of life?

environmentalmanagement

CHAPTER 2

Energy and the environment (pages 27–70)

This chapter starts with a brief study of the formation of fossil fuels. It is followed by a much more substantial section on the use of an increasingly wide variety of energy resources for generating electricity. There is a clear separation between the use of the non-renewable fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) plus nuclear energy, and the long list of renewables. Although world energy use of electricity is still dominated by fossil fuels and nuclear resources (Figure 2.6), the use of renewables is increasing everywhere. This is why the study of renewables is given greater prominence in the new syllabus. Seven types of renewables are specified in the syllabus. The approach to study for both non-renewables and renewable sources is the same—description of how they are obtained and how they are used for making electricity, followed by environmental and human (social and economic) advantages and disadvantages.

A brief section on energy demand, mainly reasons for increased world use, is followed by a fuller section on conservation and management of energy resources. This is mainly about reducing consumption, energy conservation, and making fuller use of existing resources. However, it also includes a reference to research and development of new energy resources; this includes a study of fracking, a recent but increasingly important source of additional fossil fuel supplies.

In the final two parts, the focus switches to oil pollution and its impact and management, especially for marine and coastal ecosystems. Two case studies are included to illustrate impact and management of oil pollution. One is the Niger Delta, an area in which pollution has been an issue for many years. The second is the Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, a spill of enormous proportions, which hopefully will prove to be a one-off event.

The Introduction (page 28) is used to give background information about fossil fuels, without which the rapid and great world economic growth and development over the last three centuries would not have been possible. The fact that fossil fuel resources are non-renewable is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The ‘life expectancies’ for coal, oil, and gas have been progressively extended by new technologies (for example, by deep water drilling and fracking), but eventually all the resources available to be exploited will run out if the present rates of use continue. In other words, this high reliance on fossil fuels is not a sustainable option for the energy needs of future generations.

2.1 FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS (pages 29–31)

Syllabus coverage There is only one syllabus instruction: to describe the formation of fossil fuels. The two characteristics that the formation of coal, oil, and gas have in common are identified first, before individual descriptions are given. Details about the Carboniferous era in the Information Box help to reinforce the non-renewable nature of present day fossil fuel resources.

Key syllabus term fossil fuels