Download Geology and Mining: Types of Metallic Minerals, Mineral Formation, and Energy Resources and more Quizzes Geology in PDF only on Docsity!
why are minerals
important?
they are from the crust and used by civilization they are present in almost everything we use they are necessary for modern industrial society they form by geologic processes: occurrences are predictable, formation is usually very slow they are nonrenewableresources TERM 2
2 major categories of minerals
DEFINITION 2 metallic: gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, aluminum nonmetallic: sand/gravel, gypsum, halite, dimension stone TERM 3
metallic mineral resources (properties of
metals)
DEFINITION 3 opaque, shiny, smooth, conductive solids from metallic chemical bonds: delocalized electrons move from atom to atom easily. Electron fluidity creates electrical conductivity metals may be extremely hard or soft: ductile (able to be drawn into thin wires) malleable (able to be pounded into thin sheets) TERM 4
3 types of metallic minerals
DEFINITION 4 native (naturally occur in pure form): copper, silver, gold precious (rare and economically important): gold, silver, platinum base (commonly used in industry): iron, lead, zinc, tin TERM 5
native minerals
DEFINITION 5 rare and durable gold, silver, copper have utilized them for 1,000s of years tools-easily shaped by cold working money-chosen bc of rarity and durability quest for them is important in human history-native american copper trade, spanish conquistadors, CA and Klondike gold too rare to be mine resources we use mineral that contain metals:metal ions bonded to nonmetallic elements.Ore minerals rarelyresemble pure metal
what is an ore?
rock with a concentration of metal-rich minerals present in enough abundance to be economic to mine metal must be readily extracted from the mineral there are many diff ore minerals TERM 7
ore formation
DEFINITION 7 geologic processes generate mineral ore formation a dominant control is exerted by plate tectonics tectonic effects are overprinted by the hydrologic cycle form via geological processes: magmatic activity, hydrothermal alteration, secondary enrichment, sed and weathering processes, hydraulic sorting TERM 8
magmatic ores (ore
formation)
DEFINITION 8 sulfide minerals crystallize early and min magma form massive sulfide ores at the bottom of chamber sulfides include: pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, galena TERM 9
hydrothermal deposits (ore
formation)
DEFINITION 9 minerals deposited by hot, chemically active fluids common in rocks heated by plutonic intrusions often crystallize in rock fractures as vein deposits black smokers: occur along all mid-ocean ridges-seawater in cracked hot crust is heated, picking up metals. Water cycles back to the cold ocean, metals crystallize TERM 10
secondary-enrichment deposits (ore
formation)
DEFINITION 10 groundwater leaches and oxidizes primary sulfide ores adding O2, OH, and CO2, some secondary ares are prized: malachite, azurite, turquoise
How do we mine minerals/ores?
open pit mines: large excavations open to air, less expensive and dangerous than tunnel mines, usually require ore within 100m of land surface underground mines: obtained by tunneling, tunnels linked to vertical shaft, ore removed by drilling/blasting, excavated ore hauled to surface for processing, expensive/dangerous TERM 17
what are nonmetallic minerals?
DEFINITION 17 minerals that lack metals and used by humans dimension stone-rock slabs used as building material crushed stone-for roads, asphalt, concrete cement-mixture of heated limestone, quartz, clay TERM 18
what are nonmetallic minerals used
for?
DEFINITION 18 used in homes-calcite=cement, clay minerals=bricks pottery dishware, gypsum=wallboard/plaster, quartz=window glass TERM 19
global mineral distribution
DEFINITION 19 not even issue for strategic mineral resources metals needed for highly specialized applications some mineral resources will run out soon continued use of scarce minerals will require: discovery, increase in price, increased efficiency, substitution, recycling TERM 20
environmental impacts of mineral mining
DEFINITION 20 air, surface water, ground water, soils, biota, aesthetics Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)-mobilizes heavy metals, kills stream organisms spoil-material removed to expose ore tailings-mineral processing wastes
what is an energy resource?
can produce heat, power muscles, generate electricity, move machinery in usable form, called fuel stored in chemical bonds fuels biotic life many energy resources are geologic materials TERM 22
energy from sun (sources of energy)
DEFINITION 22 directly from sun's nuclear fusion reactor heat & light radiate outward from sun tiny portion of solar output strikes earth direct solar energy can be used by humans: conversion into electricity by PV cells, conversion to heat controlled fusion is beyond current human technology TERM 23
energy from gravity (sources of energy)
DEFINITION 23 gravitational pull of moon on earth causes tides tidal flow can be harnessed to drive turbines TERM 24
solar energy & gravity (sources of
energy)
DEFINITION 24 solar radiation heats air and evaporates water gravity causes cooler air to sink and condense water vapor, pulls condensed water back to earth where it flows downhill energy can be extracted from flowing wind and water TERM 25
photosynthesis (sources of energy)
DEFINITION 25 chlorophyll stores solar energy in H-C bonds H-C bonds release stored energy when broken (oxidized)- organic respiration, rapid thermal oxidation
oil and gas genesis
hail from plankton and marine algae: dead plankton accumulates with mud and is preserved, lithification forms shale petroleum source rock burial heats shale and breaks down kerogen the oil window range is narrow-dictated by geothermal gradient TERM 32
hydrocarbon systems
DEFINITION 32 oil and gas preservation is geologically rare a known supply of oil=oil reserve most oil in super-giant fields are in Persian Gulf creation of oil reserve dependent on source rock, migration pathway (porosity/permeability), reservoir rock, trap/seal (anticline trap, salt-dome trap, fault trap, stratigraphic trap). must develop in specific order TERM 33
oil exploration
DEFINITION 33 geologists map sed rocks cross sections show rock geometry, aid search seismic reflection profiles subsurface layers expensive drilling required to tap a potential trap TERM 34
oil production
DEFINITION 34 when reservoir encountered, drilling ceases, case it with steel, well is pumped primary and secondary recovery crude oil must be refined TERM 35
alternative hydrocarbons
DEFINITION 35 tar sands-deposits of residual petroleum in sand oil shale-shale containing abundant kerogen natural gas-volatile, short-chain hydrocarbons gas hydrate-methane (CH4) in a cage of water ice
coal
remains of organic matter from vegetation forms in anaerobic settings requires heat and pressure. compaction and decay peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite (higher rank yields more energy) strip mining, underground mining, coal bed fires TERM 37
nuclear
power
DEFINITION 37 energy from breaking apart atomic nuclei nuclear reactors contained in domed building-loaded with uranium oxide fuel rods high speed neutron initiates fission-control rods slow the fission fission produces the energy major source of electricity and no emission of GHG but EXPENSIVE. loss of control may start "meltdown", radioactive wastes TERM 38
geothermal energy
DEFINITION 38 energy from earths internal heat no wastes, no GHG or air pollution hot water and steam TERM 39
hydroelectric
power
DEFINITION 39 flowing water turns potential energy into kinetic energy water directed past turbines to create electricity reduces flood risk, renewable energy BUT alter ecosystems, accumulate sed load in river TERM 40
wind energy
DEFINITION 40 renewable and carbon free BUT noisy and kill birds
strain
changes in shape caused by deformation elastic strain-reversable permanent strain-irreversable TERM 47
2 types of deformation
DEFINITION 47 brittle-rocks break by fracturing (faulting). occurs in shallow crust ductile-rocks deform by flow and folding. occurs in deeper crust TERM 48
brittle vs ductile
DEFINITION 48 factors that control how rock will behave: temp-hot rocks are more ductile pressure-rocks under high pressure are more ductile deformation rate-sudden changes produce brittle behavior. gradual changes encourage ductile behavior rock type TERM 49
what causes
deformation?
DEFINITION 49 STRESS- force applied across an area TERM 50
3 types of stress
DEFINITION 50 compression-continental collision tension-continental rift shear-transform fault
stress vs strain
stress: a measure of the amt of force applied over a given area strain: the amt of deformationor dostortion that an object experiences compared to its original size/shape TERM 52
joints
DEFINITION 52 planar rock fractures without offset result from tensional tectonic stresses often occur in parallel sets minerals can fill joints to form veins joints control weathering of rock TERM 53
faults
DEFINITION 53 planar fractures offset by mvmt across the break faults are abundant and occur at variety of scales may be active or inactive sudden mvmts along faults cause earthquakes vary by type of stress and crustal level: compression, tension, shear, brittle (shallow), ductile (deep) hanging wall, foot wall TERM 54
how are faults classified?
DEFINITION 54 fault plane orientation: vertical (strike slip faults), dipping (dip-slip faults, normal, reverse, thrust) TERM 55
dip slip fault
DEFINITION 55 sliding is parallel to fault plane dip-blocks move up or down the slope of the fault normal fault-hanging wall moves down (TENSION) reverse fault-hanging wall moves up (compression) thrust fault-hanging wall moves up at low angle (compression) (old rocks move up and over younger rocks)
crustal roots and mtn heights
high mtns supported by thickened lithosphere (crust) thickening caused by collisional orogenesis. this helps buoy the mtns upward TERM 62
isostacy
DEFINITION 62 surface elevation represents balance btw forces gravitational attraction (pushes plate into mantle) and buoyancy (causes plate to float higher on the mantle) isostatic equilibrium describes this balance compensated after a disturbance-adding weight pushes down and removing weight causes rebound compensation is slow, requiring asthenospheric flow TERM 63
erosional sculpting
DEFINITION 63 mtns are steep and jagged from erosion can only exist if rate of uplift exceeds rate of erosion. if not, will erode away rock structures can affect erosion-resistant layers form cliffs, easily eroded rocks form slopes TERM 64
orogenic collapse
DEFINITION 64 there is an upper limit to mtn heights erosion accelerates with height weight of high mtns overwhelms rock strength uplift, erosion, collapse exhume deep crustal rocks TERM 65
wha tis an earthquake?
DEFINITION 65 earth shaking caused by rapid release of energy-due to tectonic stresses that cause rocks to break. energy moves outward as an expanding sphere of waves. this waveform can be measured around globe destroy buildings and kill ppl common
what causes an EQ?
seismicity occurs due to: motion along newly formed or existing fault inflation of magma chamber volcanic eruption giant landslides meteorite impacts nuclear detonations TERM 67
hypocenter and epicenter
DEFINITION 67 hypocenter (focus)-spot within earth where EQ waves originate. usually occur on fault surface. EQ waves expand outward from hypocenter epicenter-land surface above hypocenter TERM 68
elastic rebound
DEFINITION 68 tectonic forces add stress to unbroken rocks the rock deforms slightly (elastic strain) continued stress will cause growth of cracks eventually cracks grow to the point of failure when the rock breaks, elastic strain transforms into brittle deformation, releasing EQ energy seismic waves are type of energy released from EQ TERM 69
2 types of EQ waves
DEFINITION 69 body waves: pass thru earths interior. Primary-push-pull motion. travel thru solids, liquids, and gases. fastest. Secondary-travel only thru solids, no liquids. slower. surface waves: travel along earth's surface. they are slower and more destructive. Love-S-waves intersecting the surface. move back and forth like a writhing snake. Rayleigh-P-waves intersecting the surface. move like ripples on a pond TERM 70
what is seismology?
DEFINITION 70 the study of EQ waves seismographs-record seismicity. detect EQs anywhere on earth. measures wave arrival time and magnitude of ground motion. straight line=background. P-waves arrive first, then s-waves. S-P time interval. reveals size and location of EQs!
EQ damage
ground shaking and displacement severity of shaking/damage depends on: magnitude of EQ, distance from hypocenter, intensity/duration of vibrations, nature of subsurface material (bedrock less damage. sediments more damage). landslides/avalanches liquefaction- waves liquefy H20-filled sediments- sand becomes "quicksand" and clay becomes "quickclay" fires anddisease outbreaks tsunamis- when EQs change shape of seafloor.destruction of coast depends on offshore bathymetry & topography of shore TERM 77
tsunami waves vs wind waves
DEFINITION 77 wind waves: influence upper water depth, have wavelengths of meters, wave height and length related to windspeed, lesser velocity max, waves break in shallow water and expend all stored energy tsunami waves: influence entire water depth, have wavelengths of kilometers, wave height and length unaffected by windspeed, high velocity max, waves come ashore as a raised plateau that pours onto land tsunami detection is expanding TERM 78
EQ prediction
DEFINITION 78 CAN be predicted in longterm CANNOT be predicted in shortterm TERM 79
why do we study volcanoes?
DEFINITION 79 unpredictable, dangerous eruptions can: provide productive soils to feed civilizations, can extinguish entire civilization in minutes can affect climate TERM 80
what is a volcano?
DEFINITION 80 any vent in the earth's crust thru which molten rock, volcanic gases, and pyroclastics erupt and the landform that develops around the vent
volcano
architecture
magma chamber fissures and vents craters calderas distinctive profile TERM 82
magma chamber
DEFINITION 82 located in upper crust-open cavity of highly fractured rock. contains large quantity of magma smoe magma cools here to form intrusive rock while other magma rises to surface magma may also erupt along a linear tear, a fissure-may display a "curtain of fire" TERM 83
vents and fissures
DEFINITION 83 vent is a lava outlet on a volcano vents can form anywhere on the volcano summit vent-at top of volcano flank vent-on side of volcano TERM 84
crater
DEFINITION 84 a bowl-shaped depression on top of a volcano form as erupted lava piles up around vent accentuated by summit collapse onto conduit TERM 85
caldera
DEFINITION 85 a gigantic volcanic depression magma chamber empties volcano collapses into it
where to volcanoes occur?
linked to tectonic settings hot spots: where mantle plumes cut the lithosphere. oceanic and continental and flood basalts. mid-ocean ridges-spreading axes convergent boundaries-subduction zones. island arc volcanoes, continental arc volcanoes. most subaerial volcanoes form here. Ex: ring of fire continental rifts-patrial melting of mantle (mafic) and crust (felsic) Ex: East African Rift TERM 92
volcanic hazards
DEFINITION 92 lava flow tephra-ash. bury landscapes. heavy so causes roof collapse. gritty so abrades car and airplane engines lahars-tephra moved by water as debris flow. move rapidly pyroclastic flows-clouds of ash and gas that race downslope. immediately deadly landslides-slope failures EQs tsunamis gas-poisonous TERM 93
active dormant and extinct volcanoes
DEFINITION 93 recurrence interval active-erupting or recently erupted dormant-volcano that has not erupted in 100s of years but could still do so extinct-no longer capable of erupting (tectonic changes shut off magma fuel) after extinction, erosion takes over TERM 94
methods for studying the past
DEFINITION 94 ancient orogens-former mtn belts clear evidence of continental growth over time recognizing depositional environments recognizing sea level changes changing continental positions are preserved paleoclimates-rocks preserve ancient climates climatic belts expand and contract evolution TERM 95
the Hadean Eon
DEFINITION 95 earth was heated by impacts and radioactive decay molten earth underwent chemical differentiation earth smashed a protoplanet debris from collision formed moon earth was inhospitable; a molten surface volcanic outgassing created deadly atmosphere early formed crust bombarded by meteorites forst oceans formed as rain from skies
the Archean Eon
time of significant change to planet earth earth cooled to form lithosphere volume of continental crust increased dramatically sed processes clearly operating life first appeared oldest bacteria fossils photosynthesis TERM 97
the Proterozoic Eon
DEFINITION 97 new continental crust formed but at slower rates assemble of north america precambrian supercontinents (rodinia, pannotia) atmospheric oxygen skyrocketed and permitted diversification of life TERM 98
the Phanerozoic Eon
DEFINITION 98 most recent earth history divided into 3 eras: paleozoic, mesozoic, cenozoic changes in earth's biota tectonic plates rearranged orogenic belts created and eroded sea level change TERM 99
Paleozoic era
DEFINITION 99 life evolution: hard shells, massive diversification, 1st vertebrates and algae climate warmed to create greenhouse conditions, vascular plants, first land animals, first amphibians pangaea formed, reptiles appear, ended with permian extinction TERM 100
Mesozoic era
DEFINITION 100 pangaea rifts, gymnosperms, reefs, first true dinosaurs, first feathered birds, ancestors of mammals, climate continued to warm, SFS, volcanic activity, swimming reptiles/turtles, angiosperms, dinos reached evolutionary peak, K-T boundary event (meteorite extinction)
