Morality and Justice Reading Notes

“Famine, Affluence, and Morality”

Peter Singer

oSinger expresses concern over the materialistic obsession in wealthier countries, while

some nations are starving

oIt is morally wrong to not prevent suffering whenever one can do so without sacrificing

anything of equal importance (for example; poor countries must take care of their

people first before they can help others)

o“Prevent what is bad, and promote what is good”

oThere is no justification for discriminating on geographical grounds

o“We ought to give money away, rather than spend it on clothes which we do not need to

keep us warm”

oPrinciple of Aid: takes not account of proximity or distance, no moral difference

whether the person is ten yards away or on another continent; no distinction between

cases in which I am in the only one who can help and many could help

oThere should be no discrimination based on geographical grounds

“Living on a Lifeboat”

Garret Hardin

oUses story of “lifeboat” ethics to describe the problems which arise when a nation gives

money away to other countries in need

oHelping countries with free food, shelter, and other forms of aid is irresponsible

because it helps these countries increase their population

oA wise and competent government saves money out of the production of good years to

prepare for the inevitable bad years

o“Without a world government that is sovereign in reproductive matters mankind lives,

in fact, on a number of sovereign lifeboats.”

oThe government must stop giving so much aid to countries; this will result in a smaller

population and more food for the poor countries

“What Libertarianism Is”

John Hospers

oLibertarianism: every person is the owner of his/her life

oConsequently, every human being has the right to act with his own choices, unless those

actions infringe on the equal liberty of others to act as they choose

oGovernment must protect: the right to life, the right to liberty, and the right to property

oIt has come fashionable for people to claim the people have the right to a job, free food,

medical care, clothing, and a decent home…moral cannibals expect to gain from the

efforts of others

“Active and Passive Euthanasia”

James Rachels

o“Active euthanasia is in many cases more humane than passive euthanasia”

oActive euthanasia: the killing of the patient; intentional painless overdose

oPassive euthanasia: to take away life-sustaining treatment; approved by the American

Medical Association

oRachels goings against the doctrine of the AMA which states that passive euthanasia is

acceptable and active euthanasia is unacceptable

o“If one simply withholds treatment, it may take the patient longer to die, and so he may

suffer more than he would if more direct actions were taken and a lethal injection was

given.”

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Morality and Justice Reading Notes “Famine, Affluence, and Morality” Peter Singer o Singer expresses concern over the materialistic obsession in wealthier countries, while some nations are starving o It is morally wrong to not prevent suffering whenever one can do so without sacrificing anything of equal importance (for example; poor countries must take care of their people first before they can help others) o “Prevent what is bad, and promote what is good” o There is no justification for discriminating on geographical grounds o “We ought to give money away, rather than spend it on clothes which we do not need to keep us warm” o Principle of Aid: takes not account of proximity or distance, no moral difference whether the person is ten yards away or on another continent; no distinction between cases in which I am in the only one who can help and many could help o There should be no discrimination based on geographical grounds “Living on a Lifeboat” Garret Hardin o Uses story of “lifeboat” ethics to describe the problems which arise when a nation gives money away to other countries in need o Helping countries with free food, shelter, and other forms of aid is irresponsible because it helps these countries increase their population o A wise and competent government saves money out of the production of good years to prepare for the inevitable bad years o “Without a world government that is sovereign in reproductive matters mankind lives, in fact, on a number of sovereign lifeboats.” o The government must stop giving so much aid to countries; this will result in a smaller population and more food for the poor countries “What Libertarianism Is” John Hospers o Libertarianism: every person is the owner of his/her life o Consequently, every human being has the right to act with his own choices, unless those actions infringe on the equal liberty of others to act as they choose o Government must protect: the right to life, the right to liberty, and the right to property o It has come fashionable for people to claim the people have the right to a job, free food, medical care, clothing, and a decent home…moral cannibals expect to gain from the efforts of others “Active and Passive Euthanasia” James Rachels o “Active euthanasia is in many cases more humane than passive euthanasia” o Active euthanasia: the killing of the patient; intentional painless overdose o Passive euthanasia: to take away life-sustaining treatment; approved by the American Medical Association o Rachels goings against the doctrine of the AMA which states that passive euthanasia is acceptable and active euthanasia is unacceptable o “If one simply withholds treatment, it may take the patient longer to die, and so he may suffer more than he would if more direct actions were taken and a lethal injection was given.”

o Uses statements from doctors to support his claim-doctors legally have to watch Down Syndrome babies die if parents deny surgery; yet they could easily end their lives painlessly to avoid standing by in the nursery and watching them suffer from infection and dehydration o To say that a baby can slowly wither away from dehydration and infection, but not be given an injection that would end its life painlessly without suffering is CRUEL o Uses example of Smith and Jones o Smith drowns his six-year old cousin to gain an inheritance o Jones watches the six-year old cousin drown and die without saving him in order to gain his inheritance…which is worse? “Voluntary Active Euthanasia” Dan W. Brock o Brock argues that two fundamental ethical values support the ethical permissibility of voluntary active euthanasia (patient actively consents to euthanasia)

Individual self-determination (autonomy: right to self-government)
Individual well-being (right to not suffer) o Self-determination and its link to euthanasia: people should have the right to make important decisions on their own lives according to their own values…they should be left to act freely on these decisions o Allows people to form and live in accordance to their own conception of a good life (with the boundaries of justice) o Although humans have the right to practice their own ideas, they must be mentally competent…it is not justifiable in cases of serious dementia or clinical depression o Many human’s are concerned with the nature of the last stage of their lives…they fear suffering and wish to retain their dignity and control o Individual Well-Being and its link to euthanasia: a competent patient could decide to forgo all life-sustaining treatment because they feel their life is of such poor quality and extreme suffering that it is WORSE than no life at all o Life has been considered a burden by the patient, no longer a gift o Physicians deserve the right to transfer a patient who desire euthanasia to another hospital if it defies their moral boundaries o Brock addresses the claim that allowing physicians to perform euthanasia and be “killers” would cause the moral center of medicine to collapse; they will never again be worthy of trust and respect o To refute this claim, Brock argues that no patient should fear getting involuntary euthanasia unless he/she has requested it  If active euthanasia is restricted to cases in which it is truly voluntary, then no patient should fear getting it unless he or she has voluntarily requested it  This could increase patients trust of their physicians as long as it is TRULY voluntary; no patient should fear getting it unless he or she has voluntarily requested it MAIN IDEA: By committing to patients self-determination and individual well-being, physicians’ actions as healers and comforters should be the “moral center” of medicine. What should not be the moral center is a commitment to preserving patients lives when they are in deep pain and would rather rest in peace.

“Why Shouldn’t Tommy and Jim Have Sex? A Defense of Homosexuality” John Corvino o Corvino defends homosexuality and responds directly to two recurring arguments among opposing philosophers: that it is unnatural and that it is harmful. He states that homosexuality is not unnatural in any morally relevant sense. o Argues that a sexual relationship can unite two people in a way nothing else can: sex creates growth, communication and increases pleasure in a relationship o What is Unusual or Abnormal is not Natural: While homosexuality might be unnatural in the sense of being unusual, this fact is morally irrelevant. Writing with both hands is unusual but that does not make it morally wrong. o What is Not Practiced by Other Animals is Unnatural: Numerous studies show that animals form homosexual bonds; “the idea that animals could provide us with our standards-especially our sexual standards-is simply amusing” o What Does Not Proceed From Innate Desires is Unnatural: “Do people ‘choose’ to be homosexual? People certainly don’t seem to choose their sexual feelings…do you? Think about it.” o What Violates an Organ’s Principle Purpose is Unnatural: People may say genitals are only for procreating, eyes are for seeing, ears for hearing…but many of our organs have multiple purposes. Tommy can use his mouth for talking, licking stamps, eating, kissing women, or kissing Jim. The Roman Catholic Church approves of sex for sterile couples and of sex during pregnancy, neither of which lead to procreation. The Church concedes that intimacy and pleasure are morally legitimate purposes for sex, so it is inconsistent for the Church to condemn homosexuality when they approve sex for pleasure. o What is Disgusting or Offensive is Unnatural: plenty of morally neutral activities disgust people such as handling snakes, cleaning toilets, performing autopsies. Many people used to find interracial relationships disgusting, but that feeling hardly proves that those relationships are wrong. o Some say that homosexual sex is harmful, but Corvino stresses the fact that there is nothing inherently risky about sex between people of the same gender; it is only risky under certain conditions such as exchanging diseased bodily fluids or forms of rough sex which tear delicate tissue o Heterosexual sex is equally risky under these conditions o Briefly considers two claims that homosexuality threatens children and that it threatens society o You cannot prove that child molesters are all homosexual, many are heterosexual and just because a homosexual man molests a child, his actions should not reflect the gay community as a whole o There is not a shred of evidence to demonstrate that exposure to homosexuality leads to children becoming homosexual o Homosexuality is NOT a threat to society. Priests fail to procreate by practicing celibacy, homosexual people can still have occasional heterosexual sex if they feel the need to procreate o Tommy and Jim’s sexual relationship is a positive contribution to society, it makes them happier for long-term and benefits society by making them more productive and generous than they would be otherwise

“What Marriage is For: Children Need Mothers and Fathers” Maggie Gallagher o Gallagher has a strong opposition to same-sex marriage; she argues that the underlying purpose of marriage is to bridge the “male-female divide so that children have loving, committed mothers and fathers” o Argues that the ability and willingness to have children is not a requirement for marriage of the opposite sex o Says that allowing only opposite-sex marriage does not amount to discrimination against gays and lesbians o Denies that refusing to legalize gay marriage would be similar to laws banning interracial marriage o No mater where the society is on the planet, human beings have created systems of publicly approved sexual unions between men and women that entail all the responsibilities of mothers and fathers o Marriage is the place where having children is welcomed and encouraged so that they can have mothers and fathers to lead them o “The problem with endorsing gay marriage is not that it would allow a handful of people to choose alternate family forms, but that it would require society at large to gut marriage of its central presumptions about family in order to accommodate a few adults’ desires” o Same-sex marriage would put the desire of adults before the needs of children (to have a mother/father family dynamic) “The Case for Gay (and straight) Marriage” Jonathan Rauch (p. 207) o Raunch defends gay marriage through the analysis of the social meaning of marriage; he then goes on to confront the “standard” or “child-centered” view on the purpose of marriage o “gay marriage should be expected for homosexuals, not merely permitted” o Many gay and straight people misunderstand the meaning of marriage by thinking it is for “love” or “to have children” o If the mere presence of children is the test, then homosexual relationship can pass this (adoption or artificial insemination for lesbian couples) o Having children is not in the legal binding contract of a marriage, so what does it matter if a homosexual couple marries but does not have children? o The two strongest points for supporting gay marriage: domesticating men and providing reliable caregivers; both purposes are critical to the functioning of a humane and stable society; both are much better served by a lifelong commitment like marriage o The union of marriage allows a couple the power to raise a child and keep him/her out of trouble, and lead them into a successful future once they are old enough to move away from home o The second rationale applies when one is placed with a burdensome contingency such as cancer, depression, unemployment  “a partner to convince you not to kill the supervisor if you are fired by the post office”

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