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Reasoning
○ Types of reasoning ● Deductive reasoning ■ The process of reasoning from one or more general statement (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion ■ Conclusions follow directly from the premises using rules of logic ■ Guaranteed to be correct (if you follow the rules!) ■ So asking… what's 2+2… it will always equal 4 ● Inductive reasoning ■ Reasoning that constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from specific examples ■ Probable guesses made on the basis of prior evidence ■ Not guaranteed to be correct ■ So asking… will it snow in nyc?... probably (but you don't know for sure) ● Using logic to make deductions ■ A conditional statemen t has the format “if X, then Y”
- The first part (antecedent) provides a condition under which the second part (consequent) is guanreet to be tre) ■ Modus ponens (mp)
- Premise
- If P, then Q
- If you are in Beijing, then you are in China
- P (you are in Beijing)
- Therefore Q (you are in China)
- Arguments of this form are valid ■ Affirmation of consequent
- Premise
- If P, then Q
- If you are in beijing, then you are in China
- Q (you are in China)
- Therefore P (you are in Beijing)
- Arguments may not be true and invalid ■ Modus tollens (mt)
- Premise
- If P, then Q
- If you are in Beijing, then you are in China
- Not Q (you are not in China)
- Therefore not P (you are not in Beginning)
- Arguments in this form are valid ■ Denial of Antecedent
- Premise
- If P, then Q
- If you are in Beijing, then you are in China
- Not P (you are not in Beijing)
- Therefore not Q (you are not in China)
- Arguments be not be true and invalid ● Wason Selection Task (Wason 1966) ■ People were shown 4 card and were told that there is a letter on one side and a number of the other side ■ Given proposed rule
- If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side (this is the rule that you have to follow) ■ Correct answer
- A → modus ponens (VALID)
- 7 → modus tollens (VALID)
- D → denial of the antecedent (NOT VALID)
- 4 → affirmation of consequent (NOT VALID) ● Cosmides and Tooby, 1992) ■ You are chaperoning a party and the rule is
- If someone drinks beer, they must be 21 or over
- Each card has age on one side and drink on the other side ■ Correct answer
- Beer → modus ponens (VALID)
- 10 → modus tollens (VALID)
- Diet Coke
- 23 ● Inductive Reasoning ■ In many cases we cannot rely upon deductive inferences ■ Instead we rely upon inductions ■ Induction does not guarantee a correct answer ■ However, some inferences are more likely to be right than others ■ Example
- We would like to form universal generalizations about the world
- All X’s are Y
- Are swans are white (bc we see that swans in USA are white)
- Induction is only guaranteed if we have experiences all possible instances
- Ex. there are black swans in Australia
Intelligence
○ The ability to solve novel problems and learn from experience ○ Diverse intelligence
● 4 different tests ● 2 different factors like physical coordination and academic skill (to try to figure out what the categories are) ● 2 important middle abilities ■ Crystalized intelligence: ability to acquire knowledge acquired through experience (vocab test, general knowledge test) ■ Fluid intelligence: ability to solve and reason about novel problems ● Problem ■ Factor analysis can only discover middle-level abilities probed by the specific tests given ■ Analytics intelligence: some middle level abilities are easily found, because they're select specific tests that require a particular answer ■ Some middle abilities are harder to find through factor analysis because there aren’t specific tests to reflect them like:
- Creative intelligence
- Practical intelligence
- Emotional intelligence
○ Nature vs Nurture ● Genes vs environment attribution ● Twin studies are often used ■ Genes seem to play more of a role that environment ○ Intelligences and SES ● High SES (socioeconomic status) → extra 12-18 IQ points compare dot low-SES ● Why? ■ Nutrition, medical care, stress, exposure to toxins, education quality and quantity ○ Intelligence over the lifetime
● Heavily affected by sleep ● Heavily influenced by emotion (anxiety, frustration, etc) ● Worsens significantly as the day goes on ● Children who are given 20-30 min break every hour improve as much as children who are given an extra 19 days of school ○ Ethical issues ● Should people be able to use cognitive enhancers (such as drugs) ● Is the technological enhancement of intelligence (through selecting genes) ethical ● Is a meritocracy ethical ○ Diverse Intelligences ● Animals doing much more than we can imagine ● Can use new technologies to have the capability to understand the new framework of minds ● Diverse intelligence: multidisciplinary field about what is common to all intelligences regardless of their origin sources ■ Animal intelligence
- Frans de Waal
- Adaptation, concept of fairness, recognizing their reflection in the mirror so self awareness
Development
○ Developmental psychology: conception to death ● Continuity and change
● Cephalocaudal principles ■ It states that growth and development follow a pattern that starts with the head then proceeds to the rest of the body (head to toe). The Head region starts growth at first and is followed by other organs. ● Proximodistal principles ■ It states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward. With this principle, the trunk of the body grows before the extremities of the arms and legs. Development of the ability to use various parts of the body also follows the proximodistal principle ■ Note: contrary to the textbook, there is a lot of variability. some infants skip some states of motor development, or act in a different order ○ Motor and perceptual coordination development ● How big or small things are ○ Piaget’s idea ● As discussed earlier in the semester, piaget that children proceed through 4 set stages and largely underestimated their independence based on their performance (eg object permanence, conservation, theory of mind) ● Assimilation ■ Taking something you already learned like applying a schema to novel stimuli (putting together) ● Accommodation
■ Narrowing the schema to accommodate new information (change) ○ Object Permanence (understanding that objects do not disappear) ● Putting toy under the blacked and see if the baby searched for the toy ● The car going and the box ○ Conservation (understanding that a quantity does not change) ● Putting toy under blanket and see of the baby searches of the toy ● The water being poured into glasses, the sticks, clay, cards ○ Theory of mind ( understanding that others have thoughts and feelings different that you own) ● False belief tasks ● Sally and Anne ○ Vygotsky (born the same year as Piaget) ● More about social development and how communities/families influence ● Zone of proximal development - things a child can only do with guidance and instruction (from family, community, etc) ● Cultural tools- symbol systems and resources used within a socio-cultural context to think, communicate and make meaning (language. Counting system) ● Miura et al., 1994 (Chinese vs english speaking children)
■ Insecure-avoidant attachment: The child is indifferent to their caregiver or prefers strangers. (15 percent) ■ Insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment: The child feels insecure and fearful in their relationship with their caregiver. (15 percent) ■ Discorianzied: added by Main and Solomon (1990)
- Inconsistent with attachment behaviors and is for less that 4 percent of infants ● Caregiver sensitivity hypothesis: differences in infants attachment styles are dependent on the mother’s behavior during a critical period of development ● Criticism: Doesn’t account for cultural elements (e.g., more Japanese children classified as anxious) ○ Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development ● A helpful and influential framework, but varies by individual and culture ○ Adolescence (13-19) ● Remodeling in the brain ● 2 big things ■ The brain in pruning itself (carving away things you don’t need and somesynase are removed) → specializing their brain
■ Myelin formation
- Healthy sheath and makes it faster to communicate ● Neuroplasticity ■ How the brian responds to experience ■ The ultimate goal it to make an integrated brain ● Outcome is kindness and compassion ● Dr. Siegal ○ Old age ● In general, you are at your optimal at 20 years old ○ The aging brain compensates and becomes less specialized ● Older chess players remember chess positions poorly but can play chess just as well ● Verbal working memory test, Cabeza, 2002 ○ U Curve of Happiness ● Happiest in their 20s and in their older ages ● Mature adults have the benefit of experience and that wisdom helps them to see the bigger pictures in a way youthful adults can't yet. It's simply a matter of time and lived experience. Theri decisions and wisdom are grounded in experiences that give them skills to cope. Older and wiser, as they say
Personality
○ An individual’s characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling ○ Personality psychologists study ● How people’s personalities differ ● Why people’s personalities differ
- Variable 1: score on extraversion-introversion
- Variable 2: how much time someone spends alone ○ Big 5 stability ● The big 5 are moderately to highly stable across adulthood with test-retest correlations ranging from. to .70 across shorter time intervals and from .31 to .45 across long spans of time, such as 20-50 years (Damian et al. 2018, Robers and DelVecchio, 2000) ○ The role of genetics ● Twin studies ● Mono are more similar that di ● Genetic Studies (A Genome-Wide Analysis of Liberal and Conservative Political Attitudes) → liberal and conservative views ○ The role of the brain ● Reticular formation regulates arousal and alertness ● When presented with stimulus (drop of lemon on the tongue, mild electric shocks, loud noises), there is greater activation in the reticular formation of introverts that extravert ● Behavioral activation vs behavioral avoidance ○ Person-situation controversy ● Is behavior more caused by personality or by a situation? ■ Have you ever asked yourself this question?
- Hugh Hartshorne and Mark May (1928)
- Conducted a classic study of morality involving thousands of schoolchildren
- Children were provided with opportunities to be dishonest in a wide variety of situations
- But low correlation across different situations ○ Personality in relation to goals ● Outcome expectancies: a person’s assumption about the likely consequences of future behavior ● Locus of control: how much you feel you have control over your life ■ Internal locus of control- believing you have control ■ External locus of control; believing you do not have control (it's all random or its all up to other people) ○ How we understand our self ● Self concept: a person’s explicit knowledge of their own behaviors, traits, and other characteristics. Includes 2 parts: ■ Self narrative: a person’s story about their life ■ Self schema: a person’s understanding of their core traits ● Self verification: the tendency to seek evidence to conform the self concept ■ Example: Swann (1983) had people rate themselves on a dominance submissiveness scale, then told some of the very submissive people that they scored as highly dominant. Those people behan acting especially submissive ● Self serving bias: people tend to take credit for their successes and blame other for their failures ■ I did well on this test because I am smart. I failed tis other test because it was unfair ● People tend to think they are above average at things (90 percent of drivers rate themselves as being above average drivers; 94 percent of professors rate their teachings above average) ○ Personality disorders ● 9 percent ● An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviated markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture ■ Genetic factors or traumatic events ■ Genetics and OCD ● Personality disorder clusters ■ Off behavior (Cluster A)
- Paranoid personality disorder
- Intense paranoia
- Highly sus
- Obsessive compulsive disorder
- Solitaire, erratic thoughts and behaviors, hyper sensitivity
- Schizoid personality disorder and Schizophrenia
- No hallucinations
- In touch with reality
- Very detached
- Schizotypal personality disorder
- Strange beliefs or fantasy
- Willy wonka
- Paranoia
- Family history ■ Dramatic behavior (Cluster B)
- Antisocial personality disorder → disregard others rights
- Borderline schizotypal
- Psychopaths
Social Psychology
○ The scientific study of the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations ○ From an evolutionary perspective, survival and reproduction requires ● Understanding each other (predicting others’ behavior, knowing who to trust)
● Influencing each other (convincing others to mate with us, to be our allies and not enemies, etc) ○ Cooperation ● Behavior by 2 or more individual that leads to mutual benefit ● Prisoner’s dilemma ■ On average 50 percent cooperate ■ Cooperation increases when people feel connected to their partner or when the partner is in their in-group ■ Repetition promotes cooperation ■ Allowing players to briefly communicate increases cooperation ○ Schemas ● Schemas are mental frameworks that organize your knowledge and experience ● We can have schemas about people as well ■ Picture a nurse ■ Picture a dangerous person ● What affects how we access our schemas ■ Frequency priming ■ Recency priming ■ Current goals ● Frequency priming ■ Mere exposure effect
- Had people go into a class over 15 classes and had people not in the class sit in the semester and the students rated how attractive the people in the class are and they rated the people that were in the class higher - Zajonc, 1966; Moreland and Beach 1992) ■ People prefer the reversed image or mirror reversed image of themselves but not of others because they usually see themselves in the mirror and not face to face (Tallia Storm) ● Recency Priming ■ Part 1
- Participants asked to memorize a list of words
- Condition a: positive words
- Condition b: negative words ■ Part 2
- People asked to read a story about a character, Donald and give their impression of him ■ People were asked to read the paragraph about Donald and form an impression. In the first study, some participants memorized words that could be used to interpret Donald in a negative way,
