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Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) CH. 01 | UNDERSTANDING EXCEPTIONALITIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY Why Label People? Why Label People? ● Labeling – a fundamental way society identifies and describes human differences. It provides a shared language for professionals (e.g., educators, psychologists, medical practitioners) to communicate about individuals’ needs. ● Labels are often necessary for determining eligibility for specialized services, interventions, and educational support systems. ● Common Terms Used to Describe Differences:
- Disorder – refers to a general abnormality in mental, physical, or psychological functioning. It indicates that typical patterns of development or behavior are disrupted. ➔ Ex: ADHD involves persistent inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.
- Impairment – refers to a loss, abnormality, or weakness in psychological, physiological, or anatomical function. It reflects the specific limitation caused by a disorder. ➔ Ex: Difficulty sustaining attention in a classroom setting.
- Disability – occurs when an impairment limits an individual’s ability to perform everyday activities or fulfill expected roles. It often involves reduced functional capacity in comparison to typical developmental expectations. ➔ Disabilities can sometimes be reduced through interventions or assistive devices. ➔ Ex: A child struggling to complete school tasks due to attention difficulties.
- Handicap – refers to a disadvantage imposed by the environment due to an individual’s impairment or disability. It emphasizes the interaction between the individual and environmental demands rather than the condition itself. ➔ Ex: A classroom setting that does not accommodate a student’s learning needs, leading to reduced participation. 5. Exceptional – a broad term describing individuals who differ significantly from the average in development, learning, or behavior. Includes both individuals with disabilities and those with advanced abilities. ➔ Giftedness and Talent – refers to exceptional or outstanding abilities in one or more domains (e.g., intellectual, creative, or artistic areas). ● Labels can have both positive and negative consequences. ➔ Positive: Enable access to specialized services, support programs, and legal protections; help professionals design appropriate interventions. ➔ Negative: May lead to stigma, stereotyping, or lowered expectations; can influence how individuals are perceived and treated by others. ● Learning Disability – a condition in which one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language are deficient. ➔ Affects skills such as reading, writing, listening, or mathematical reasoning. ● Intellectual Disability – characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. ➔ Typically involves below-average intellectual ability along with difficulties in daily living skills. ● Exceptional Child – one who differs from the norm to such an extent that specialized education or services are required (Samuel Kirk’s definition). This includes: ➔ Children with physical disabilities (e.g., blindness, deafness, orthopedic impairments). ➔ Children who deviate intellectually (either significantly above or below average). ➔ Children who are maladjusted or experience emotional or behavioral disturbances. Three Approaches to Understanding Human Differences Developmental Approach ● Developmental Approach – explains human differences as the result of interactions between biological factors (e.g., genetics, neurological development) and environmental influences (e.g., family, education, culture).
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ● To understand whether development is atypical, one must first identify what is considered typical development for a given age or stage. ● Differences are then interpreted as: ➔ Advanced Development – skills appear earlier or at a higher level than expected. ➔ Delayed Development – skills emerge later or at a lower level than expected. ● This approach emphasizes that development occurs along a continuum rather than in fixed categories. ● Ex: A child who reads at a much higher grade level may be considered advanced, while a child who struggles with basic language skills beyond the expected age may show developmental delay. Cultural Approach ● Cultural Approach – defines normality based on the values, beliefs, and expectations of a particular society. ● What is considered “typical” or “acceptable” behavior can vary widely across cultures. ● This perspective requires examining cultural norms before making judgments about differences or disabilities. ● It also highlights the risk of mislabeling individuals when cultural context is ignored. ● Ex: Eye contact may be seen as a sign of confidence in some cultures but considered disrespectful in others, which can affect how behavior is interpreted. Self-Labeling ● Self-Labeling – refers to how individuals define and perceive themselves, which may differ from how others label them. ● These self-imposed labels are shaped by personal experiences, social interactions, and internal beliefs. ● Self-labeling can influence: ➔ Self-esteem and identity (self-fulfilling prophecy); ➔ Motivation and behavior; and ➔ Willingness to seek support or services. ● It may be either empowering or limiting depending on how the individual interprets the label. ● Ex: A student diagnosed with a learning disability may view themselves as “capable but needing support” or, negatively, as “incapable,” which affects performance. The Effects of Being Labeled Separating the Person and the Label ● Once a label is assigned, there is a tendency for others to see the label as defining the entire person. This can lead to reduced expectations or stereotyping. ● Person-first language helps reduce this effect by emphasizing the individual before the condition. ➔ Ex: Saying “a child with autism” instead of “an autistic child.” ➔ This practice reinforces that a disability is only one aspect of a person’s identity. Contextual Bias ● Perceptions of individuals are influenced by the context in which they are observed. Behavior that appears atypical in one setting may be typical in another. ● Context can shape judgments about ability, behavior, and “normality.” ● Ex: Students with disabilities in self-contained classrooms may be perceived as less socially competent due to limited interaction opportunities. ➔ In inclusive classrooms, the same students may be viewed more positively because they engage with a broader peer group. Changing Societal Views on People with Disabilities: From Discrimination to Inclusion Changing Societal Views on People with Disabilities ● Attitudes toward individuals with disabilities have changed significantly over time. ➔ Pre-Christian Era: Individuals with disabilities were often neglected, abandoned, or subjected to harsh treatment such as infanticide or slavery. ➔ Early Christian Period: Greater protection emerged, but individuals were often pitied and viewed as dependent. ➔ Modern Era: Increasing emphasis on rights, inclusion, and equal opportunities. ● Contemporary views emphasize dignity, inclusion, and respect. The use of person-first language reflects a shift toward recognizing individuals beyond their disabilities. ➔ Alternative terms such as “differently abled” have emerged, though their acceptance varies across contexts. ● Society now promotes inclusive education, legal protections and accessibility policies, and specialized programs and interventions tailored to individual needs. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) ● The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) – a civil rights law designed to prevent discrimination against individuals with disabilities.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ➔ Their work emphasizes understanding disability not just as an individual condition, but as a product of social environments and relationships. ● Guiding Principles in Identifying Social Differences:
- Difference as a violation of social norms. Behaviors or characteristics may be labeled “different” when they do not align with societal expectations (e.g., a child who behaves differently in classroom settings may be seen as disruptive based on school norms).
- Social differences are not illnesses. Not all differences should be medicalized; some reflect diversity rather than pathology.
- Cultural often define what is “normal,” and these definitions are frequently imposed on less powerful groups; this can lead to marginalization or unequal treatment.
- Social differences arise from complex interactions among environmental, cultural, economic, and individual factors. ● Professionals may come from disciplines such as sociology, social work, gerontology, criminology and criminal justice, and family and marriage studies. ➔ These fields address issues like access to services, family dynamics, aging, and societal inclusion. Describing People with Differences ● Different disciplines use distinct perspectives and terminology when describing individuals with differences:
- Medicine – focuses on pathological disease (biological causes and conditions).
- Psychology – emphasizes abnormal mental processes or behavior.
- Sociology – views differences as deviance or violations of social norms.
- Education – uses terms such as special, exceptional, disordered, disabled, or handicapped to identify students who require specialized instruction or support. ● Understanding of disability depends on the field of study and its underlying assumptions. Looking Toward a Bright Future Looking Toward a Bright Future ● A positive future for individuals with disabilities depends on access to essential community resources, including education, health care, transportation, recreation, social support networks. ➔ Access promotes independence, participation, and overall quality of life. ● Effective inclusion requires a two-part approach:
- Individual Support – providing appropriate services and interventions to help individuals develop independence and functional skills.
- Community Responsibility – reducing societal barriers and creating inclusive environments that accommodate diverse needs. ● Barrier-Free Facilities – designed to ensure accessibility in buildings, transportation, and public spaces (e.g., ramps, elevators, and accessible restrooms). Such designs reduce environmental limitations and promote equal participation. ● Opportunities for recreation and leisure vary depending on age and type and severity of disability. Inclusive recreational programs enhance social interaction, physical well-being, and emotional health. ● Many individuals with disabilities face difficulties obtaining employment due to limited opportunities, workplace barriers, and social stigma. ➔ Addressing these barriers is essential for long-term independence and economic participation. ● Support for individuals with disabilities should: ➔ Be based on the principle “whatever it takes.” Services should be flexible, individualized, and designed to meet the diverse needs of the individual and the family. ➔ Build on existing social networks and natural sources. ➔ Maximize each person’s control over his or her services.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ➔ Be based on the assumption that the individual and the family, rather than governments and agencies, are in the best position to determine needs. ➔ Encourage the inclusion of people with disabilities into the life of the family and community. CH. 02 | EDUCATION FOR ALL A Changing Era in the Lives of Students with Disabilities A Changing Era in the Lives of Students with Disabilities ● There has been a global movement advocating equal access to education for children with disabilities. ● Schools are now expected not only to provide basic instruction but also to equip students with functional, social, and vocational skills needed for independent adult life. ● Education is increasingly viewed as a fundamental right, not a privilege. In countries like the United States and Philippines, policies emphasize inclusion and equal opportunity in education. Educational Services for Students with Disabilities in the 20th Century Early Special Education Programs ● In the 18th and 19th centuries, educational services were separate from public schools and designed primarily for students with sensory impairments or those labeled as “slow learners.” ● These early programs often focused on care and basic instruction, rather than full academic development. Education as a Privilege, Not a Right ● Between 1920 and 1960, special education services were optional, not legally required. Many children with disabilities were excluded from formal schooling. ● 1940s: Debate emerged over whether students should be placed in special schools or general education classrooms. ● 1950s: Expansion of special education programs worldwide, often through separate classes or schools. Expanding Role of the Federal Government ● John F. Kennedy supported funding for teacher training programs in special education, and promoted research and innovation in educational practices. ● Federal initiatives helped increase the number of trained professionals, expand access to educational services in public schools. and improve the quality of instruction for students with disabilities. The Right to Education The Right to Education ● The right to education for individuals with disabilities was established through: ➔ Legislation (laws ensuring access and protection); and ➔ Court decisions (challenging exclusion and discrimination). ● These developments reinforced that all children, regardless of ability, are entitled to free and appropriate education. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ● The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975) was a landmark law that guaranteed free appropriate public education (FAPE) for all eligible students with disabilities. ➔ Ensured services regardless of the type or severity of disability. ● In 1990, it was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), reflecting more respectful and person-centered language. ● Key Components of IDEA ➔ Zero-Exclusion Principle – no child can be denied access to education due to a disability. Ensures inclusivity regardless of how severe or complex the condition is. ➔ Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) – a plan designed for infants and toddlers (ages 0–3) with developmental delays. Includes: ● Multidisciplinary assessment (involving different specialists). ● Family-centered services and goals. ● Focuses on supporting both the child and the family in early development. ● IDEA established the foundation for: ➔ Inclusive education practices; ➔ Early intervention programs; and ➔ Individualized educational planning.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ➔ Accommodations and modifications needed for the student to access learning. ● The IEP ensures that education is individualized, goal-oriented, and continuously monitored. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) ● Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) – states that students with disabilities should be educated with their non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate. ➔ Inclusion in general education settings is preferred whenever possible. ➔ Removal to separate settings should only occur when the disability significantly limits success in a regular classroom, even with support. ● Schools must provide a continuum of placement options, such as general education classrooms with support or resource rooms or part-time special classes. The Special Education Referral, Assessment, Planning, and Placement Process Phase 1: Initiating the Referral ● The process begins when a concern is raised by parents, teachers, or school personnel. ● A child study team reviews the concern and may implement early intervening services (e.g., instructional adjustments). ● If these supports are insufficient a formal referral for evaluation is made; the school must obtain written parental consent before proceeding with assessment. Phase 2: Assessing Student Eligibility and Special Educational Need ● A multidisciplinary, nondiscriminatory assessment is conducted. The evaluation uses multiple sources of data to ensure accuracy and fairness. ● The team reviews results to: ➔ Determine if the student meets criteria for a disability category; and ➔ Identify the need for special education and related services. ● This phase ensures decisions are based on comprehensive and objective evidence. Phase 3: Developing the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) ● An IEP team is formed, typically including parents, teachers, and specialists (e.g., psychologists, therapists). ● The team collaborates to determine: ➔ Student’s current performance levels. ➔ Measurable annual goals. ➔ Areas requiring special education support. ➔ Level of access to general education curriculum. ➔ Participation in school-wide assessments. ➔ Duration and timeline of services. ➔ Methods for reporting progress to parents. ● This phase ensures that the plan is comprehensive and responsive to the student’s needs. Phase 4: Determining the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) ● Placement decisions are guided by two key questions:
- What placement best supports the student in achieving their IEP goals?
- Which setting allows the student to learn alongside non-disabled peers as much as appropriate? ● The selected placement is documented in the IEP and implemented after obtaining parental consent. ● This phase ensures a balance between individual support and inclusive education. CH. 03 | INCLUSION AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY COLLABORATION Inclusive Education Inclusive Education ● Inclusion – refers to the extent to which students with disabilities have access to and participation in general education settings. ➔ Meaningful involvement; promotes academic growth and a sense of belonging among students with diverse needs. ● Inclusive Education – students with disabilities receive appropriate services and support within general education classrooms. ➔ This often involves “push-in” services , where specialists (e.g., special education teachers, therapists) provide support inside the regular classroom. ● Full Inclusion – refers to an approach where all services and supports are delivered within the general education classroom. Students remain in the same classroom as their peers. ➔ Include classroom accommodations, collaborative teaching between general and special educators, and peer support. ● Partial Inclusion – involves providing most services within the general education classroom, but allowing students to leave temporarily when necessary. ➔ Students may be “pulled out” for specialized instruction or therapy sessions.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ➔ Goal: To maximize inclusion while meeting individual needs. ● Mainstreaming – refers to placing students with disabilities in general education classrooms for part or all of the school day. Placement depends on whether the student can meet academic expectations with minimal support. Characteristics of Evidence-Based Inclusive Schools Diversity, Acceptance, and Belonging ● Effective inclusive schools promote respect for diversity, acceptance of individual differences, and a sense of belonging for all students. ● Supportive school culture encourages collaboration and shared responsibility for student success. Formal and Natural Supports ● Inclusive schools provide both formal and natural supports to ensure student success. ● Formal Supports – are structured services provided by the school system. These supports which address specific academic, behavioral, or functional needs, such as: ➔ Individualized Education Program (IEP); ➔ Special education teachers; ➔ Resource rooms; ➔ Related services (e.g., therapy); and ➔ Assistive technology. ● Natural Supports – refer to informal support networks within the school and community. These supports encourage inclusion through mutual respect and cooperation among students, including: ➔ Peer support and friendships; ➔ Teacher collaboration; ➔ Classroom accommodations; and ➔ Positive school climate. Age-Appropriate Classrooms in Neighborhood Schools ● Effective inclusive schools place students with disabilities in age-appropriate classrooms within neighborhood schools, whenever possible. ● Students benefit from learning alongside peers of the same age, helping them develop social skills, independence, and confidence. Access to the General Curriculum ● Access to the general education curriculum is a key requirement under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). ● Students with disabilities should participate in the same academic content as their peers, with appropriate supports and accommodations; inclusion is about meaningful participation in learning activities. ● To support access, schools use differentiated instruction, curriculum accommodations, and assistive technology. ● Response to Intervention (RTI) – one commonly used approach which provides early support for struggling learners and uses tiered instruction with increasing levels of support. Schoolwide (Instructional) Support ● Effective inclusive schools use schoolwide support systems to address diverse learning needs. These systems combine general education and special education resources to benefit all students. Multidisciplinary Collaboration Multidisciplinary Collaboration ● Multidisciplinary Collaboration – involves professionals, parents, and students working together to develop and implement effective educational programs. ● The goal is to provide coordinated support that meets individual student needs and promotes success in inclusive environments. Parents as Valued Partners ● Families play an essential role in inclusive education. ● Effective schools encourage regular communication with parents and involve families in decision-making. ● When parents feel valued as equal members of the team, they are more likely to develop a positive attitude toward school professionals. Sharing the Responsibility ● Inclusive education requires shared responsibility among: ➔ General education teachers; ➔ Special education teachers; ➔ Psychologists and other specialists; ➔ School administrators; and ➔ Related service providers. ● These professionals work together to achieve a common goal: a free and appropriate education for students with disabilities. ● The Regular Education Initiative (REI) – promotes collaboration between general and special education. Encourages all educators to share responsibility in ensuring appropriate education for students with disabilities. Multidisciplinary Schoolwide Assistance Teams ● Multidisciplinary Schoolwide Assistance Teams – groups of professionals, students, and/or parents working together to solve problems, develop instructional strategies, and support classroom teachers.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.)
- There is a diagnosis of a physical or mental condition that has a high probability of resulting in a developmental delay. ● Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) – a written service plan designed for infants and toddlers receiving appropriate early intervention services; focuses on both the child and family needs. Evidence-Based Instructional Approaches for Preschool-Age Children Service Delivery ● Intensive Care Specialists (Neonatal Specialists) – healthcare professionals trained to treat ill newborns, infants with disabilities, and babies at risk for medical complications. ● They often work in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU) and provide medical care and early support services. Developmentally Supportive Care ● Developmentally Supportive Care – an approach that views the infant as an active participant in their own development and a collaborator in determining appropriate services. ● Focuses on supporting natural development and improving long-term developmental outcomes. Individualized, Intensive, and Comprehensive Services ● Preschool-age children benefit from services that are individualized, intensive, and comprehensive. ➔ These services may include speech therapy, occupational therapy, early childhood education programs, etc. ● Providing early, individualized, and comprehensive services improves developmental outcomes and supports long-term success for children with disabilities. Preschool Services: Referral, Assessment, and IEP Development ● Referral Programs ➔ Early referral helps children receive early intervention services and improves developmental outcomes. ➔ Child-Find System – a system within a state or local area that attempts to identify all children who are disabled or at risk in order to refer them for appropriate support services. ● Multidisciplinary Assessment – involves professionals from different fields working together to evaluate a child’s development. ➔ This assessment evaluates multiple developmental areas (e.g., cognitive skills, communication skills). ➔ Results help determine educational placement and instructional strategies. ● Developing an IEP for Preschool-Age Children ➔ After assessment, professionals and families work together to develop an IEP for preschool-age children. ➔ Functional Assessment – to determine the child’s skills, the characteristics of the setting, and the family’s needs, resources, expectations, and aspirations. Developmentally Appropriate Practice ● Developmentally Appropriate Practice – instructional approaches that use curriculum and learning environments consistent with the child’s developmental level. ● Includes hands-on learning, social interaction, and exploration and discovery; these practices help children develop social and academic skills. Age-Appropriate Placement ● Age-Appropriate Placement – educational placement based on instructional programs consistent with chronological age rather than developmental level. ● This allows children with disabilities to interact with peers of the same age and experience inclusive learning environments. Teaching Functional Life Skills ● Preschool programs should focus on functional life skills, such as communication skills, self-care skills, and social interaction, which help children become more independent in everyday situations. ● Adaptive Fit – compatibility between demands of a task or setting and a student’s instructional needs and abilities. Inclusive Preschool Classrooms ● Inclusive preschool classrooms include children with and without disabilities learning together. ➔ Provides equal learning opportunities and peer modeling. ➔ Support holistic development and promote equity in early childhood education. CH. 04 | LEARNING DISABILITIES A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Learning Disabilities A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Learning Disabilities ● Learning disabilities are often described as “invisible disabilities” because individuals typically appear physically typical and possess average intelligence, yet experience difficulties in academic areas.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ● These difficulties are not immediately noticeable, especially in early childhood, which may delay identification and support. ● Learning disabilities affect individuals across all age groups and cultures, and challenges may persist throughout life in daily functioning. Definitions and Classifications of Learning Disabilities Definitions and Classifications of Learning Disabilities ● Learning disabilities are commonly considered mild disabilities, because most individuals demonstrate average or near-average intellectual ability. ● They represent a heterogeneous group, meaning students with learning disabilities show wide variation in characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses. ● The proportion of students identified with learning disabilities has increased from about 25% in 1975 to 46% in 1999, then declining to around 36% in 2014. Definitions ● Specific Learning Disability (IDEA) – a disorder in one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, whether spoken or written. ➔ May appear as difficulty in listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, and performing mathematical calculations. ➔ Includes conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. ● Learning disabilities do not include learning problems primarily caused by: ➔ Visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; ➔ Intellectual disabilities; ➔ Emotional disturbance; ➔ Environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (including limited English proficiency); and ➔ Lack of appropriate instruction. Classification ● Classification – involves identifying a complex constellation of behaviors and symptoms, rather than a single defining trait. ● Key classification considerations include:
- Discrepancy – difference between intellectual ability and academic achievement.
- Heterogeneity – wide variation in characteristics among individuals. 3. Exclusion – ruling out other primary causes of learning problems. 4. Severity – extent to which the disability affects performance. ● A student may be identified based on: ➔ A severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement in one or more academic areas; or ➔ The student’s response to targeted, intensive, evidence-based intervention (Response to Intervention). ● Response to Intervention (RtI) – refers to evaluating how well a student responds to scientifically based instructional interventions before determining eligibility for special education. Typically organized into three tiers:
- Tier 1 – high-quality instruction in the general education classroom; universal screening and regular progress monitoring.
- Tier 2 – targeted instruction for students who do not make adequate progress in Tier 1; delivered in small groups with increased instructional support.
- Tier 3 – highly individualized, intensive instruction, and often provided one-on-one; students who show minimal progress may be considered for special education evaluation. Characteristics and Prevalence of Learning Disabilities Characteristics and Prevalence of Learning Disabilities ● Learning disabilities vary widely across individuals. Challenges are often amplified by: ➔ Comorbidity – the co-occurrence of multiple disabilities, such as learning disabilities with ADHD. ➔ Range and Variability of Estimates – differences in definitions, assessment methods, and identification criteria contribute to varying prevalence rates. ● Learning disabilities represent the largest category of students receiving special education services, accounting for about 35% of individuals with disabilities being served. ● One common method of identifying learning disabilities is through achievement tests. Academic Achievement ● Students with learning disabilities often demonstrate difficulties in one or more academic areas. ● Reading
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) Maturational Delay ● Maturational Delay – refers to slower-than-average development in certain areas, particularly language development, visual-motor coordination, and academic skills. ● Children may eventually develop these skills, but at a slower pace compared to peers. Genetic Factors ● Research involving identical and fraternal twins suggests that learning disabilities may have a hereditary component. ● Learning difficulties such as dyslexia often appear in multiple members of the same family, supporting genetic influence. Environmental Factors ● Certain environmental influences have been suggested as possible contributors, including poor nutrition, exposure to toxins or radiation, alcohol or drug exposure during pregnancy, stressful environments, and inadequate school instruction. ● These factors may increase risk, though they are rarely the sole cause. Identification and Assessment of Learning Disabilities Formal and Informal Assessment ● Both formal and informal measures are used to gather comprehensive information about the student. ● Standardized Instruments – measure academic performance using consistent procedures. ➔ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) – assesses reading, writing, and mathematics skills.
- Norm-Referenced Assessment – compares a student’s performance to that of a larger representative group; helps determine whether performance is below average.
- Criterion-Referenced Assessment – compares performance to specific learning standards or criteria; does not compare the student to others.
- Curriculum-Based Assessment – uses classroom curriculum objectives to monitor progress; helps teachers evaluate learning within the actual instructional context. ● Screening – a preliminary assessment used to identify students who may need further evaluation. ➔ It serves as a “red flag,” indicating potential learning problems; students identified through screening typically undergo more detailed assessments. Intelligence Assessment ● Students with learning disabilities typically demonstrate average or near-average intelligence. ● Common intelligence tests include: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Adaptive Skills ● Some individuals with learning disabilities experience difficulties with adaptive behavior, including understanding appropriate social behavior, managing daily tasks, and adjusting to different environments. Academic Achievement Assessment ● Academic achievement is evaluated in key areas: ➔ Reading ➔ Writing ➔ Mathematics ➔ Results help determine specific areas of difficulty and guide intervention planning. Interventions and Treatments for People with Learning Disabilities Elementary Education Programs ● Academic Instruction and Support ➔ Elementary programs for students with learning disabilities focus on improving foundational academic skills and preventing further learning gaps. ➔ Instruction is typically explicit, structured, and individualized, with frequent monitoring of progress. ● Mathematics: Understanding basic concepts and operations; step-by-step problem-solving strategies; use of visual aids and manipulatives. ● Reading: Phonemic awareness and phonics; fluency development; reading comprehension strategies. ● Behavioral Interventions: Commonly used to improve classroom engagement, motivation, and self-regulation. ➔ Behavioral Contract – an agreement stating that if one party behaves in a certain manner, the other will provide a specific reward. ➔ Token Reinforcement System – students, by exhibiting positive behavior changes, may earn tangible items that they can exchange for rewards.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ● Students are often taught compensatory skills. These strategies help students work around learning difficulties and increase independence. ● Transition Services – help students move from school to adult life; planning usually begins during secondary education and is included in individualized education planning. ● College-Bound Students: Students with learning disabilities preparing for college benefit from: ➔ Basic survival college skills; ➔ Developing a support network; and ➔ Learning how to request accommodations. Multidisciplinary Collaboration: Education and Other Services ● Inclusive Education – involves educating students with learning disabilities within general education classrooms with appropriate support. ➔ Positive teacher attitudes are essential for successful inclusion. ➔ Teachers who are supportive and flexible help promote academic and social success. ➔ Students receive additional services and accommodations while remaining in general education settings. Health and Other Services ● Childhood: Some children with learning disabilities may receive psychostimulant medications, such as Ritalin, particularly when attention difficulties or hyperactivity are present. ● Adolescence: Services often focus on continued assessment of learning needs and improved treatment strategies. CH. 05 | EMOTIONAL/BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS A Changing Era in the Lives of People with EBD A Changing Era in the Lives of People with EBD ● Individuals with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD) often experience significant difficulty in forming and maintaining relationships with peers, family members, teachers, and other adults. ➔ These difficulties may interfere with academic performance and social development. ● Many students with EBD struggle to respond appropriately to academic demands and social expectations, which are essential for school success. ● Recent advances in intervention strategies and educational support have improved outcomes for students with EBD. ● Increasingly, students with EBD are being served in general education classrooms, neighborhood schools, and community-based programs. ● Teachers play an important role by understanding students’ behavioral patterns and building trust and supportive relationships. Definitions and Classifications of EBD Definitions and Classifications of EBD ● Emotional Disturbance (IDEA) – a condition exhibiting one or more characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree, which negatively affects educational performance: ➔ Inability to learn not explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. ➔ Difficulty building or maintaining relationships with peers and teachers. ➔ Inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances. ➔ General mood of unhappiness or depression. ➔ Tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears related to school or personal problems. ➔ Does not include students who are socially maladjusted, unless they also meet the criteria for emotional disturbance. ● In 1990, the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition proposed a broader definition to address limitations of the IDEA definition. ● Emotional or Behavioral Disorders – described as behavioral or emotional rtesponses that differ significantly from age, cultural, or ethnic norms and negatively affect educational performance. ➔ More than a temporary response to stress. ➔ Consistently exhibited in at least two settings (e.g., school and home). ➔ Unresponsive to direct intervention in general education settings. ➔ May coexist with other disabilities, such as learning disabilities or ADHD. Classification Systems ● Classification System – a method used to organize and describe patterns of behavior in children and youth with EBD. ● Professionals use classification systems to:
- Provide a shared way of describing behavior problems.
- Establish common terminology for communication among professionals.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) situations and with separation from attachment figures. ➔ Selective Mutism – refusal to speak in specific social situations despite ability to speak in others; often associated with social anxiety and fear of interaction.
- Reactive Attachment Disorder – characterized by inappropriate or underdeveloped social relationships, typically resulting from early neglect or inconsistent caregiving. ● Inhibited Behavior – withdrawal, limited emotional response. ● Disinhibited Behavior – overly familiar or inappropriate social interactions.
- Childhood Schizophrenia – characterized by severe behaviors such as hallucinations, delusions, irrational behavior, and strange thinking. Characteristics and Prevalence of EBD Intelligence ● Research indicates that children and youth with EBD generally demonstrate average to below-average intelligence. ● Academic difficulties may result from emotional challenges, behavior problems, and inconsistent school participation. Social–Adaptive Behavior ● Social Characteristics: Students with EBD often demonstrate difficulty playing or interacting with peers, problems sharing or cooperating, aggressive or disruptive behavior, withdrawal from social interaction, and difficulty processing and understanding language. ● Adaptive Behavior: Students with EBD may experience challenges in daily functioning and emotional regulation. ➔ Common concerns include mood disorders and poor coping strategies. ➔ Bipolar Disorder – characterized by alternating episodes of manic and depressive behaviors; extreme mood swings, impulsivity, or periods of low energy and withdrawal. ● Bullying (and cyberbullying) perpetration and victimization are persistent problems among students with disabilities. Academic Achievement ● Students with EBD often show significant academic difficulties across subject areas, performing below grade level, particularly in reading, writing, and mathematics. ● Students with EBD also experience high dropout rates, among the highest of any disability category. ➔ These outcomes may affect postsecondary education, employment opportunities, and long-term independence. ● Prevalence: ➔ Estimates vary widely, ranging from 2% to 20% of school-age children. ➔ Many children with EBD remain unidentified or underserved, resulting in limited access to intervention and support. ➔ There is also disproportionate identification, with African American males more frequently identified as having EBD. Causes of EBD Causes of EBD ● Emotional and behavioral disorders are multidimensional and complex, typically resulting from the interaction of multiple risk factors rather than a single cause.
- Family and Home Environment ➔ Family dynamics play an important role in emotional and behavioral development. ➔ Risk factors may include family conflict or discord, inconsistent parenting and discipline, lack of emotional support, and limited supervision
- Temperament ➔ Some children are born with temperamental characteristics such as high activity level and intense emotional reactions. ➔ These traits may increase vulnerability to behavioral difficulties, especially when combined with environmental stressors.
- Socioeconomic Status ➔ Children from low-income families or communities may face limited access to resources, exposure to stress or instability, and fewer educational opportunities. ➔ These factors may contribute to emotional and behavioral challenges.
- Child Abuse and Neglect ➔ Experiences such as physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect may negatively affect emotional regulation, trust, and behavior.
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) Identification and Assessment of EBD Screening, Pre-Referral Interventions, and Referral for Assessment ● Positive Behavior Support (PBS) – a school-wide approach designed to promote appropriate behavior and academic success. ➔ Involves clearly stated behavioral expectations, consistent reinforcement of positive behaviors, and support from all school personnel. ➔ This proactive approach helps prevent behavioral problems before they escalate. ● Screening – involves early identification of students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. ➔ Early identification allows early intervention, reduced severity of problems, and improved academic and social outcomes. ● Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD) – a three-stage screening process used to identify young children who may require additional services:
- Stage 1 – teacher identification of at-risk students.
- Stage 2 – behavioral rating scales and observations.
- Stage 3 – direct observation and further evaluation. ➔ Students identified may receive intervention before formal referral. Collaborative Teams ● Response to Intervention (RTI) – a problem-solving approach that uses research-based interventions and ongoing monitoring to address student needs.
- Tier 1 – Universal Support: School-wide behavioral expectations and classroom management strategies.
- Tier 2 – Targeted Interventions: Small-group interventions for students needing additional support.
- Tier 3 – Intensive Interventions: Individualized and intensive support. Assessment Factors ● Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) – gathers information about when, where, and why behavior occurs. The goal is to identify triggers and functions of behavior to guide intervention. ● Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs) – individualized plans developed using FBA results. Include target behaviors, intervention strategies, reinforcement methods, and progress monitoring. ➔ These plans aim to replace problem behaviors with appropriate alternatives. Assessment Approaches and Procedures ● Strength-Based Assessment – focuses on identifying student strengths and abilities rather than only weaknesses. ➔ Strengths may include interests, social skills, talents, academic abilities. ● This information is used to develop strength-centered individualized education programs and improve motivation and engagement. Interventions and Treatments for EBD Multidisciplinary Collaboration: Systems of Care ● Effective intervention for students with EBD often requires multidisciplinary collaboration, involving schools, families, and community agencies. ● Systems of Care Approach – integrates services to address academic, behavioral, emotional, and social needs. ● Wraparound Approach (WRAP) – an intensive, team-based method that supports children and youth within their natural environments. Focuses on helping students succeed at home, school, and community settings. ➔ This approach involves family members, teachers, counselors, and community professionals. ➔ Emphasizes individualized and culturally responsive services. ➔ The goal is to help students develop functional behaviors and life skills for long-term success. ● Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy (CBT) – focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. ➔ Students are taught to recognize negative or inappropriate thoughts, replace them with positive or realistic thinking, and develop appropriate behavioral responses. ➔ CBT helps improve self-control, emotional regulation, and problem-solving skills. Early Childhood Education ● Early intervention focuses on child-centered, intensive, and family-focused services. ● Programs aim to develop social and emotional skills, improve communication and behavior, and strengthen family involvement and support. ● EBD can be successfully prevented by developing within young children the skills and dispositions
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) Definitions and Classification of Intellectual Disabilities Definitions and Classification of Intellectual Disabilities ● Rosa’s Law (PL 111-256) – passed in 2010; replaced the terms mental retardation and mentally retarded with intellectual disability in U.S. federal laws. ➔ Aimed to remove pejorative and stigmatizing terminology and promote respectful language. Definition ● The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) defines intellectual disability as significant limitations in three areas:
- Intellectual Functioning – refers to general mental capacity, including reasoning, learning, and problem-solving. ➔ Typically measured by IQ tests, with scores about two standard deviations below the mean. ➔ With an average IQ of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, this corresponds to approximately 70 or below.
- Adaptive Behavior – refers to conceptual, social, and practical skills needed for everyday functioning. ➔ Limitations may appear in areas such as communication and language, social interaction, and daily living skills. ➔ Individuals may require varying levels of support.
- Age of Onset ➔ Intellectual disability must originate before age 18. ➔ It is considered a developmental disability, meaning mental and/or physical impairments limit functioning in major life activities. Putting the Definition into Practice 1. Limitations are evaluated within the context of the individual’s environment, including cultural and community expectations. 2. Assessments must be valid for the individual’s background and abilities. 3. Individuals with intellectual disabilities have both limitations and strengths. 4. Identified limitations are used to develop a profile of needed supports. 5. With appropriate and sustained supports, individuals can improve functioning and increase independence. Classification Severity of the Condition ● Severity is determined by how much a person’s intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior differ from what is typically expected for their age. ● Terms commonly used to describe severity include mild, moderate, severe, and profound. ➔ Mild represents the highest level of functioning; profound represents the lowest level of functioning. Medical Descriptors ● Medical Classification System – intellectual disabilities may also be classified based on their biological or medical causes (e.g., genetic conditions, prenatal complications, brain injuries). ➔ Originated in the medical field and focuses on etiology rather than functioning. ● Helps professionals understand prognosis, prevention, and treatment planning, but does not always indicate the level of support a person needs. Classification Based on Needed Support ● IQ: 50–70 – Mild: Intermittent Support ➔ Supports are provided as needed, not continuously. ➔ Assistance may be episodic or short-term, such as during stressful situations, school transitions, or job changes. ➔ Individuals may live independently with minimal support. ● IQ: 35–55 – Moderate: Limited Support ➔ Supports are consistent but time-limited, such as structured learning environments or job training. ➔ Individuals benefit from regular assistance in academics, communication, and daily living skills. ➔ Many can perform self-care activities and work in supported environments. ● IQ: 20–40 – Severe: Extensive Support
Term 3 (Mid-Terms) | Human Exceptionality (12th Ed.) ➔ Supports involve regular daily assistance in at least some environments, such as home or school. ➔ Individuals may require help with self-care, communication, and mobility. ➔ Learning focuses on functional skills and basic independence. ● IQ: Below 25–20 – Profound: Pervasive Support ➔ Supports must be constant, intensive, and across multiple environments. ➔ Assistance may be life-sustaining, including help with eating, movement, and medical care. ➔ Individuals typically require full-time supervision and care. Characteristics and Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities Characteristics Common to Children and Youth with Intellectual Disabilities Learning and Memory ● Individuals with intellectual disabilities often show reduced intellectual functioning, which affects how quickly and efficiently they acquire, retain, and apply knowledge. ➔ Learning may occur more slowly, and repeated practice is often necessary. ● Generalization – the ability to apply previously learned information to new situations; difficult for those with ID. Self-Regulation ● Self-Regulation – refers to the ability to control behavior, emotions, and responses in different situations. ● Individuals with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty planning tasks, monitoring their own behavior, and adjusting strategies. ● Information-Processing Theories – focuses on how individuals receive, interpret, store, and respond to information. ➔ Suggest that learning differences in individuals with ID are related to underdeveloped metacognitive skills. Adaptive Skills ● Adaptive Skills – refer to the abilities needed to function independently and meet everyday demands. ● Individuals with intellectual disabilities often show delays in adaptive skills compared to peers without disabilities. ➔ These delays may affect independence in areas such as personal hygiene, managing money, following schedules, etc. ● Developing adaptive skills is a major focus of educational and intervention programs, as these skills improve independence and quality of life. Academic Achievement ● Research shows that children with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities often experience significant academic delays, particularly in reading comprehension and mathematics. ● These challenges often require explicit instruction, repetition, and practical learning experiences to support academic growth. Speech and Language ● Many children with ID experience speech and language difficulties, which can affect communication, learning, and social interaction. ● Articulation Problems – involve difficulty producing speech sounds correctly and may include omissions, substitutions, additions, and distortions of words. ● Voice Problems – refer to abnormal sound qualities in speech, such as hoarseness and nasal tone. ● Stuttering – speech problem involving abnormal repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations. Physical Development ● In many cases, physical development of children with intellectual disabilities is similar to that of same-age peers without disabilities. However, greater severity of ID is often associated with more noticeable physical differences. ● Some children may also experience delays in gross and fine motor skills, which can affect daily tasks. Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities ● Approximately 1% of the total population is estimated to have intellectual disabilities. ● In the United States, this corresponds to about 7– million individuals. ● Around 7% of all students receiving special education services are identified as having intellectual disabilities. Causes of Intellectual Disabilities Genetic Conditions ● Some intellectual disabilities are caused by genetic abnormalities that affect brain development and functioning. ● Chromosomal Abnormalities – occur when there are changes in the number or structure of chromosomes, which can interfere with normal development.
