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GRAMMAR RULES SUMMARY (GRS)
(rev. 11 /7/ 2020 ) section rule # section rule # Capitalization Rules Fragments and Run-ons End marks Commas Apostrophes Semicolons Colons Dashes Hyphens
Parentheses Quotation Marks & Italics Punctuating Dialogue and Direct Quotations Spelling and Word Choice Abbreviations / Numbers Agreement (ref) Pronoun Case Sentence Construction (awk,mw,mm) Miscellaneous
CAPITALIZATION (cap or lc) RULES
Rule
1. Capitalize the first word in sentences, interjections, and incomplete questions. {The trees
whispered.} Also, capitalize the first word in a quotation if the quotation is a complete sentence. {Still holding the letter, he said to her, "Where do you live?"}
2. Capitalize all proper nouns {Shakespeare} and proper adjectives. {the Canadian actress}
NOTE: Capitalize the names of compass directions only if they refer to a specific region or are part of an address_._ {Don’t visit the Southwest in August. If the museum is located at 75 East Huron, it is not on the northwest side of the city.} NOTE: When a word like “dad” or “coach” is used as name, it is considered a proper noun. { My dad is a pilot. I have to ask Dad. His coach quit. Please talk to Coach about it.} NOTE: Specific time periods, eras, and historical events are considered proper nouns. {Middle Ages, Roaring Twenties, McCarthy Era, Civil Rights Movement, Arab Spring} However, concepts, theories, philosophies, etc., are not capitalized. {the struggle for civil rights, existentialism, psychoanalytic theory, feminism, democratic ideas} Occasionally, you will find variation in the capitalization of particular word (e.g. zeitgeist or Zeitgeist). When in doubt, check dictionaries, see if there is any consensus in how your research sources capitalize the word, and/or consult your teacher. In the text of your paper, be consistent with your choice about whether or not to capitalize the word.
3. Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all other important words in titles of any works of art.
Words usually not capitalized are articles, prepositions, coordinating conjunctions: a, an, the, of, to, in,
for, from, with, and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. The words a, an, and the must be capitalized when they
are the first words of the title. They are usually not capitalized, however, at the beginning of the names of most magazines and newspapers and are often left out of such titles. NOTE: There are specific rules for why some titles are italicized and some titles are in quotation marks. See GRS rules 49 - 50. Examples: books Great Expectations, To Kill a Mockingbird , Out of Africa , periodicals Newsweek , poems " The Raven, " short stories " The Scarlet Ibis ," plays Hamlet , paintings Mona Lisa , movies Driving Miss Daisy , TV shows Saturday Night Live and other works of art.
FRAGMENTS (frag) and RUN-ONS (RO)
- A group of words that does not have a complete thought is called a fragment. As a general rule, do not use fragments in formal writing. A fragment may have a subject and a verb, but sometimes even with a subject and a verb, the sentence may not make sense. FRAGMENT Examples: After the rain. (no verb) Applauded the performer. (no subject) Because the boy finished. (has a subject and verb but doesn't make sense alone) Although she was tired. (“Although” is a subordinating conjunction signifying a dependent clause) NOTE: In an imperative sentence (a command), the subject of the sentence is understood to be YOU even if the word YOU is not in the sentence. An imperative sentence is not considered a fragment. For example: Take seven pieces of candy. Stop! Do not jump!
- A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences (independent clauses) joined by no mark of punctuation or by a comma. Run-on sentences should not be used in formal writing. HOW TO FIX A RUN-ON: 1.) Two independent clauses must be separated into two sentences OR 2.) may be joined together with a semi-colon (if the two independent clauses are closely related) OR 3.) may be connected by a comma followed by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) (see GRS rule 13). Running two independent clauses together with a comma between them is also called a “comma splice” error. RUN-ON Examples: I went to Chicago last week I enjoy rock concerts. Sam took the exam last week he passed. The zookeeper fed the lions, there were ten of them. END MARK (pend) RULES
6. Use a period to end a declarative sentence. {This tale is true.}
7. Use a period after most abbreviations. {Mr. Dickens wrote that novel.}
8. Use a question mark to end an interrogative sentence. {Were you nervous?}
9. Use an exclamation mark after an exclamatory sentence. {Open the door!}
10. MLA FORMATTING RULE: When typing, always space once or twice (depending on instructor
preference) after any sentence end mark (period, question mark, or exclamation mark). However, after abbreviations, only space once.
- INTRO WORD or “IW” Use a comma to separate an introductory word from the rest of the sentence. {Oh, it wasn't that important to me. Yes, I agree. However, the Monkees are still my favorite band.}
- INTRO PHRASE or “IP” Use a comma to separate a rather long phrase (4+ words) from the rest of the sentence. { In Tennyson's beautiful poetry , I admire the imagery.} Some two or three word phrases require a comma if they are transitional phrases: By contrast , several painters use more shadows. After further thought , the coach decided to call another practice. By the way , your paper is due on Tuesday. In fact , seventeen people were convicted. NOTE: If there is a verb in the phrase, no matter how short it is, use a comma. {Working rapidly , he tried to meet the last deadline. Batting third , he waited in the dugout. }
- INTRO DEPENDENT CLAUSE or “IDC” Use a comma to separate
a dependent clause (or subordinate) clause (a clause which cannot stand alone) from an
independent clause (a clause which can stand alone) when the dependent clause comes first.
{When her book was finished, Kate Mansfield was rather pleased.} IDC = intro dependent clause IC = independent clause {If gasoline prices go down, people will begin to travel more.} IDC = intro dependent clause IC = independent clause NOTE: Adverbial clauses may be elliptical. An elliptical clause is one in which a word or words have been omitted. In elliptical clauses the omitted words are understood by both the reader and the writer. In the examples below, the omitted words are shown in brackets. {When [she was] visiting Utah, Claire saw the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. When [I was] eating, I saw something moving in my salad.}
- DIR When a noun that is used to directly address someone begins a sentence, use a comma after it. {Jill, please do your beam routine one more time.} When you address someone directly using a noun at the end of a sentence, put a comma before it. {Do one hundred more push-ups, Arnold.} When you address someone directly using a noun in the middle of a sentence, put a comma before and after it. {I think, Rolf, that you should teach college courses.}
- NOT Use comma to separate contrasting words, phrases, and clauses introduced by the word "not." {This carton must be opened from the top, not from the bottom.}
- DQ Use a comma to introduce a direct quotation and to separate it from the rest of the sentence. {Dan said, "The soup is boiling." OR "Turn off the stove," said William.}
- DATES/ADDRESSES or “D/A” Use a comma to separate the day of the week, the day of the month, and the year in a date. Use a comma to separate parts of geographical names and to separate the name of a street, city, and state in an address. {On Thursday, December 10, 1953, we moved to 3319 Simpson Street, Evanston, Illinois.} NOTE: A comma is used to separate the last part of a geographical name, an address, or a date from the rest of the sentence. Notice the comma after Minnesota in the following example: {We sent the letter to Eden Prairie, Minnesota, early this morning.}
- TAD Use a comma to separate a person's name (or a company’s name) from a TITLE, DEGREE,
or an AFFILIATION that follows it. {I just met Lieutenant Mary Woodard, USMC.}
If the title, degree, or affiliation comes in the middle of the sentence, put commas before and after it. {Melissa Adams, PhD, gave an award to Karen Anderson, MD. Henry Marquard, Jr., will be speaking.}
- NONESS Use a comma (or a pair of commas if the nonessential phrases or clauses come in the middle of a sentence) to separate nonessential phrases or clauses from the rest of the sentence. {My brother, of course, is the only one who knows how to fix things like that.} If the element in question appears at the end of the sentence, be sure that it is truly non-essential before using a comma to separate the element from the rest of the sentence. See the two examples below. {Nancy gave one hundred dollars to Glenda, who had just arrived from Chicago.} {Nancy gave one hundred dollars to the woman who had just arrived from Chicago.} NOTE: Deciding whether to use the word "which" or "that" can be tricky. If you can drop the phrase or clause and not lose the point of the sentence, use "which." If you can't, use "that." Commas, which cut out the fat, go with which but never with that. Example 1 : The gymnastics gym, which is located behind the main gym, was built in 1991. In example 1, the "which is located behind the main gym" is disposable or nonessential to the writer's purpose because there is only one gymnastics gym in the school. Example 2 : The dog that won first prize was Buster's bulldog. In example 2 , "that won first prize" is essential, so it has no commas surrounding it. This sentence misses the point without the dependent clause, “that won first prize.” NOTE: Be sure to use paired commas with transitional or parenthetical expressions that interrupt the sentence. {We stayed, nevertheless, until the game had ended. The painter Georgia O’Keeffe, by the way, took up pottery late in life. The Nile, I think, is the longest river in the world.}
APOSTROPHES (pa)
25. Use an apostrophe in a contraction to indicate the position of missing letter(s). {You’re late. Can’t
he fix it? ‘Tis the season to be jolly. He graduated in the class of ’22.} NOTE: As a rule, avoid using contractions in formal writing such as academic writing and business communication.
26. Add an apostrophe and an s to show the possessive case of a singular noun. {Bruce's attitude
was philosophical. I stepped on the cat’s tail. The dress's lower half was ruined.}
For a singular proper name ending in s, add only an apostrophe (dropping the additional s) if the name
has two or more syllables and if the addition of s would make the name awkward to pronounce.
{Ulysses’ plan, Laertes’ sword, Ms. Rawlings’ car}
For a singular common noun ending in s, add both an apostrophe and an s if the added s is pronounced
as a separate syllable. {the actress’s speech, the platypus’s tail, the princess’s castle}
27. If the noun is plural and doesn't end in s , add an apostrophe and an s to show the possessive case.
{The children's menu was limited, and the men's room was filthy. I found these on sale in the women’s shoe department.}
28. If the noun is plural and ends in s , add just the apostrophe to show the possessive case.
{Sally’s parents' anger was obvious. The Willises' car was stolen by the parking attendant. The princesses’ castle was in Germany. The Wallenbergs live in the Wallenbergs’ house.}
29. If two people possess something in common, consider them a single unit. Put a single apostrophe
and an s at the end.
{Sam and Janet's evening was ruined. Sam and Janet’s car was stolen.}
30. If two people possess something (or some things) individually, rather than jointly, each name gets
an apostrophe and an s.
{Sam's and Janet's cars came from the same dealer.}
31. Use an apostrophe and an s to form the plurals of all lower case letters, of some capital letters, of
numerals, of symbols, and of words referred to as words. {She is in her early 20’s. The star player got hundreds of high 5’s after the game. Your last sentence had too many that’s in it. She got five CD's. I saw the Oakland A’s play. Make sure you dot all your i’s and cross all your t’s. He strived for A’s.} NOTE: Writing “twenties” { She is in her early twenties.} and “fives” { The star player got hundreds of high fives.} is better in formal writing.
NOTE: Writers sometimes add only an s and do not use an apostrophe to form the plurals of such items—
except lowercase letters—if the plural forms cannot be misread. { She got five CDs.} Because usage varies, be consistent. For example, if you write 1920s (rather than 1920’s), you must do so consistently throughout your paper.
SEMICOLONS (psc)
32. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses that are not already joined by a conjunction.
{Some of the fans went home; others stayed until the bitter end.}
33. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses separated by either a conjunctive adverb or a transitional
expression. {The tickets were just too expensive; however, we borrowed the money.}
34. Use semicolons when independent clauses or items in a series already contain one or more commas.
{The winners are from Gary, Indiana; Chicago, Illinois; and Florence, Wisconsin. He has traveled to Syria; Canada; and Paris, France.}
35. MLA FORMATTING RULE: When typing, space once after a semicolon.
COLONS (pco)
36. Use a colon to separate a list of items from an introductory statement that contains a specific number
or the words 1.) “AS FOLLOWS,” 2.) “THE FOLLOWING,” or 3.) “THESE.” {There were three things to consider: weather, terrain, and equipment.} {Do not bring the following items to class: cell phones, food, or dogs.} NOTE: A colon is generally not used after the words “FOR EXAMPLE,” “THAT IS,” “SUCH AS,” “NAMELY,” or “FOR INSTANCE.” Do not place a colon between a verb and its direct object or after a preposition. ERROR Example: The winner is: Laurie.
37. Use a colon to introduce a formal or lengthy quotation.
{On the pedestal these words appear: "My name is Ozymandias, king of kings."}
38. Use a colon to introduce a statement that summarizes or explains the sentence before it.
{The officers thought his excuse was valid: self-defense.} NOTE: If what comes after the colon is a complete sentence, start it with a capital letter. {My advice was this: Bring only one next time.}
39. Use a colon to separate a salutation from the body of a business (formal) letter. {Dear Sir:}
40. Use a colon to separate the hour and minutes in expressions of time. Do not space before or after the
colon. {11:45}
41. Use a colon to separate chapter numbers from verse numbers in references to passages from the Bible.
Do not space before or after the colon. {Genesis 6:10}
42. Use a colon and a space to separate a title from a subtitle in the title of your paper {Storytelling:
Images from Film} or for a book { Roots: The Saga of an American Family } unless the author preferred to separate the subtitle another way. { Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus } MLA FORMATTING RULE: Space once after a colon when typing.
PARENTHESES (p( ))
48. Use parentheses to set off asides and explanations only when the material is not essential or when it
consists of one or more sentences. {My eyes were filled with tears (I could not tell why), and at times a flood seemed to pour from my heart.} QUOTATION MARKS (pq) and ITALICS (pi), TITLES, etc.
- The titles of short works are put in quotation marks. short stories {We read "The Most Dangerous Game."} essays {We studied Thoreau's essay "Civil Disobedience."} encyclopedia articles {“Trampoline”} songs {"America the Beautiful"} short poems generally published in anthologies {"The Raven"} episodes of television shows {“The Trouble with Tribbles" (an episode of Star Trek )} magazine articles {“Sources of Energy”} newspaper articles {Did you read the article "Eagles Win Again" in today’s newspaper ?} lectures {“Preparing for a Successful Interview” was a helpful lecture.} chapters of a book {We read chapter three, "Building A Nation," for homework.}
- The titles of long works are put in italics. books { Great Expectations }, pamphlets { Minnesota Drivers’ Manual } plays { Romeo and Juliet } book-length poems { Beowulf } newspaper titles { Eden Prairie News } magazine titles { Time } movies { The Shawshank Redemption } television and radio shows { Gilligan's Island } lengthy works of music { 1812 Overture } CD or audiocassette or record album or DVD { Abbey Road } paintings { Mona Lisa } sculptures { Venus de Milo } ballets { Swan Lake } operas { Madame Butterfly } musicals { West Side Story } ships { Queen Elizabeth 2 } aircraft { Air Force One } spacecraft { Mariner }
NOTE: When you hand write, underline titles that should be italicized when
typing.
50a. COURT CASES: Names of court cases are italicized.
Example of court case title as referenced in the text of your paper and in parenthetical reference: The impact of the court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education cannot be underestimated. Generations of legal scholars will continue to view it as foundational (“Ongoing Impact of Brown v. Board of Education ”).
50b. CITING SACRED WORKS: Sacred works are an exception to some of the rules for formatting
titles. Do not use italics or quotation marks for the books of the Bible, the word Bible, or titles of other sacred writings (Old Testament, Genesis, Talmud, Koran, etc.) {In our class, we read excerpts from the Bible. I especially liked the one from the book of Exodus.}
50c. TITLES WITHIN TITLES: Italicize a title normally indicated by italicizing when it appears within
a title enclosed in quotation marks. {“ Romeo and Juliet and Renaissance Politics” (an article about a play)}. Use quotation marks around a title normally indicated by quotation marks when it appears within an italicized title. { “The Lottery” and Other Stories (a book of short stories) } Place single quotation marks around a quotation that appears within a title requiring quotation marks. {“Steve Jobs Advises ‘Stay Hungry! Stay Foolish!’”} For identifying an italicized title within an italicized title, the title within is neither italicized nor enclosed in quotation marks. { Approaches to Teaching Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities}
50d. SPECIAL USES FOR ITALICS Identify foreign words not commonly used in English by putting
these words in italics. {The Renaissance courtier was expected to display sprezzatura , or nonchalance, in the face of adversity.} Identify words you wish to stress by putting these words in italics. {I am really tired.}
50e. SHORTENED TITLES If you cite a title often in the parenthetical references in your paper, you
may, after stating the title in full at least once, use a shortened form, preferably a familiar or obvious one or the first few words of the title. {“Nightingale” for “Ode to a Nightingale”} { Owen Meany or A Prayer for A Prayer for Owen Meany }
**He said, “We’ll discuss the fable in one hour.” “I love cookies!” shouted Wally.
- Both parts of a divided quotation are enclosed in quotation marks. The first word of the second part is not capitalized unless it begins a new sentence. “This fable,” our teacher said, “is a twist of an old tale.”
- Quotes within quotes: If you need to have one character directly quoting another character, then use double quotes for your main dialogue and single quotes for the quote-within-a-quote. “And then he said, ‘Mind your own business.’ The nerve!” she shouted****.** **57. When you write dialogue, begin a new paragraph whenever the speaker changes. “Videotaping would be a great idea for our project,” declared Clarissa. “Not only is it a popular medium for today’s artists, but it has practical applications as well.” “You’re right,” Angela agreed. “Videotaping was helpful to us on the swimming team.” “I work with teacher training,” mused Carmen, ”and perhaps videotaping teachers at work would be helpful.” “Well, I guess we should all try it,” Clarissa said. “Let’s meet next week and compare our projects.”
- Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in thought or speech or an unfinished statement or question. “First of all,” he said, “if you can learn a simple trick, Scout, you’ll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view—” “Sir?” “—until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.”
- If you have the same speaker saying things that are separated by descriptive passages, you may choose to keep everything in one paragraph or separate parts into their own paragraphs. Make this decision using the same criteria you would use in deciding to start a new paragraph without dialogue. In other words, if you have more than one topic, give each its own paragraph. Just make sure it is clear that the dialogue belongs to the same speaker. “If I didn’t go to school tomorrow, you’d force me to.” “Let us leave it at this,” said Atticus dryly. “You, Miss Scout Finch, are of the common folk. You must obey the law.” He said that the Ewells were members of an exclusive society made up of Ewells. In certain circumstances the common folk**
**judiciously allowed them certain privileges by the simple method of becoming blind to some of the Ewells’ activities. They didn’t have to go to school, for one thing. Another thing, Mr. Bob Ewell, Burris’s father, was permitted to hunt and trap out of season. “Atticus, that’s bad,” I said. In Maycomb County, hunting out of season was a misdemeanor at law, a capital felony in the eyes of the populace.
- Sometimes, one speaker’s words run for more than one paragraph. When this happens, use quotation marks at the beginning of the quotation, at the beginning of each subsequent paragraph, and at the end of the whole quotation. “I read a spell-binding mystery yesterday,” Agnes said. “It gripped me on the first page, and I couldn’t put the book down until I had finished.** * “The plot is simple, almost classic. Five people are sitting in a room watching home movies. When the lights come on, one of the people is dead. Who did it? How was it done? * “Of course, no one has entered or left the room during the movies; thus, one of the other four people in the room has done it. I, of course, thought of poison—but that was wrong. * “Well, the detective arrives, and the questioning begins. As the story unfolds, you learn that everyone has a motive. The plot thickens. The mystery isn’t solved until the last page, and it had me fooled. Whew! I’m exhausted from the suspense!” ** **“Wow, Agnes, you surely spoiled the book for me,” said Pam. *There are no closing quotation marks here because Agnes continues. There is a closing quotation mark here because Agnes is finished speaking. 6 1. ELLIPSIS POINTS: Use three spaced ellipsis points (.. .) to indicate a pause in written dialogue. {“Well,... I don’t know,” Sarah answered****. } When someone’s words “trail off,” you also use 3 ellipsis points. (Be sure to space between each one.) If the ellipsis points appear at the end of a sentence, you will first need a “dot” for the sentence period. When there are four dots, the first dot is the sentence period. “Mr. Ewell shouldn’t do that--” Note: An interruption is indicated by a dash. “Of course, he shouldn’t, but he’ll never change his ways. Are you going to take out your disapproval on his children?” “No, sir,” I murmured and made a final stand: “But if I keep on goin’ to school, we can’t ever read any more... .” Note: The first dot is the sentence period. “That’s really bothering you, isn’t it?” “Yes, sir.”
The word “lucrative” means “producing money; profitable.” The writer probably chose the word “lucrative” to say that Gatsby appeared rich, but the word doesn’t really fit because Gatsby’s appearance indicates wealth but does not produce it.
64 c. CONFUSING VERB RULES:
TRANSITIVE vs. INTRANSITIVE VERBS:
Use the intransitive verb when there isn't an object. Use the transitive verb when there is an object.
Intransitive = no object Transitive = takes object
to lie to sit to rise to lay to set to raise present tense lie sit rise lay set raise past lay sat rose laid set raised past partic. lain sat risen laid set raised w/ ing lying sitting rising laying setting raising {Robert lies on the mat to rest. {Robert lay the book on the piano. Yesterday, Robert lay on the mat for hours. Yesterday, Robert laid the book on the piano. Susan sits on the chair in the hallway. Susan sets the table every evening. Carina rises every morning at seven.} Carina raises the flag at camp.
64d. CHOOSING BETWEEN ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS:
ADJECTIVE FORM vs. ADVERB FORM?
Use the adjective form when the word is being used to modify a noun or pronoun. Use the adverb form when the word is being used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Example adjectives Example adverbs good well (meaning how positively something is done) well (meaning health) bad badly safe safely real really sure surely careful carefully slow slowly Example 1 : How did you do in the game last night? Did you do well? adv. Example 2 : I feel bad about missing your concert. adj. Example 3 : I did badly on the geometry quiz last hour. adv.
ABBREVIATIONS (abb or marked sometimes as msf error)
65. As a rule, do not use abbreviations in formal and academic writing. When in doubt, write it out!
ERROR Example: Jill missed the info because of her unex. absence. CORRECTED Example: Jill missed the information because of her unexcused absence. According to the MLA Handbook , version 8, abbreviations are used regularly in the list of works cited and in in-text citation but rarely in the text of academic writing. For example, the names of months that are longer than four letters are abbreviated in the works-cited list. {Jan., Mar., Apr.} If you are allowed to use abbreviations, always choose accepted forms. Always spell out a term if the abbreviation may puzzle your readers. Make sure you consult your teacher. When you are allowed to use an abbreviation with a period, space once. Here are some examples of accepted forms of abbreviations if your teacher allows them: {Mr. Adams, who has a BA in English, will be speaking at 11:00 a.m. Dr. Carter and Sara Clark, MA, both worked for Elizabeth Jackson, PhD, in 2019. J. R. R. Tolkien wrote The Hobbit****. Sara Stein, who has her MS from Harvard, lectured on Harper Lee, Elie Wiesel, John Steinbeck, et cetera.}
66. PUNCTUATING COMMON ABBREVIATIONS: Some abbreviations are not followed by a period:
metric units {10 ml, 2 kg}, postal abbreviations for states in addresses {MN, NY, NJ} , most government agencies {NASA, FBI}, many large corporations {CBS, IBM}, and some common abbreviations {TV, AM, FM, mph, CD}. {Did you watch last night’s TV special on NBC? Does Ms. Sanchez work for NATO? I received my MA from} NUMBERS (marked as an msf error)
67 a. Spell out numbers that can be written in one or two words and represent other numbers by
numerals. {We drove four hundred miles in seven hours. There were 175 guests at the party. She was thirty-six years old. They sold fifteen hundred raffle tickets. That house costs three million dollars. I took 2½ hours to complete the assignment. Her 101 dalmations were famous.}
67 b. Do not begin a sentence with a numeral. {Nineteen ninety-two began with a bang.}
67 c. Except at the beginning of a sentence, always use numerals in the following instances:
with abbreviations (if allowed) or symbols {6 lbs., 4:20 p.m., 3%, $9, 8KB, 2”}
- in addresses {4401 13th Avenue}
- in dates {April 1, 2006}
- in decimal fractions {8.3}
- in page references {page 7}
- For large numbers, use a combination of numerals and words. {4.5 million} NOTE: Do not start a sentence with a numeral. ERROR EXAMPLE: 207 people brought gifts. Instead, move the numeral to another place in the sentence. { The gifts came from 250 people.}
AGREEMENT RULES (agr)
68. BASIC SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT:
Singular subjects take singular verb forms. {Adam drives a car.} sing. sing. Plural subjects take plural verb forms. {Teachers drive me crazy.} pl. pl.
69. BASIC PRONOUN AGREEMENT:
A pronoun must agree in number and gender with its antecedent (the word(s) to which a pronoun refers). When an antecedent is singular, a singular pronoun is used to refer to it. {The lady was a true magician, and she knew it.} sing. sing. When the antecedent is plural, a plural pronoun is used to refer to it. {The boys fill their knapsacks with food.} pl. pl. Of course, the verb used must also agree in number. {The lady was a true magician, and she knew it. They fill their knapsacks with food.} sing.sing. sing.sing. pl. pl. pl.
69a. PRONOUN REFERENCE CLARITY (ref): A pronoun must refer clearly to a specific
noun or pronoun (an antecedent). If a reader cannot clearly identify a pronoun’s antecedent (either because it is missing or its antecedent is ambiguous), this is a pronoun reference error. ERROR Example 1 : I believe they shouldn’t show violence on television. Who are “they”? The pronoun “they” doesn’t specifically identify anyone. CORRECTED Example 1 : I believe broadcasters shouldn’t show violence on television. ERROR Example 2 : Ron told Harry that Snape’s intentions were unclear, but he felt he couldn’t be trusted. Who does not trust whom? This sentence needs to be revised so that it is clear who “he” is. CORRECTED Example 2 : Ron told Harry that Snape’s intentions were unclear, but Ron felt Snape couldn’t be trusted.
70. SINGULAR INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: Some INDEFINITE PRONOUNS are
ALWAYS SINGULAR—each, one, either, neither, much, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody—and, therefore, they take singular verb forms and use singular pronouns to agree with them. {Everybody wants his or her coach to win the award. Each of the twins has her sing. sing. sing. sing. sing.sing. own distinct ways.} NOTE: When gender is unspecified and a singular possessive pronoun is needed, you must use his or her, not their. ERROR Example: An athlete must buy their own equipment. CORRECTED Example: An athlete must buy his or her own equipment. EVEN BETTER CORRECTED Example: Athletes must buy their own equipment.
71. PLURAL INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: Some INDEFINITE PRONOUNS are ALWAYS
PLURAL—several, few, both, many, others—and, therefore, they take plural verb forms and use plural pronouns to agree with them. {Both of the students want their coach to win the award. Few of the old Model T pl. pl. pl. pl. Fords are left.} pl.
72. AMBIGUOUS INDEFINITE PRONOUNS:
Some INDEFINITE PRONOUNS—all, any, most, none, some—can be considered singular or plural depending on the situation. The pronoun must agree with its antecedent and take the appropriate (singular or plural) verb form. These pronouns—all, any, most, none, some—are considered singular when their meaning in the sentence is singular. {All of the meatloaf has been eaten.} All refers to the noun meatloaf, which is singular. {Most of the flood damage was minor.} Most refers to the noun damage, which is singular. {None of the milk is left } None refers to the noun milk, which is singular.} These pronouns—all, any, most, none, some—are considered plural when their meaning in the sentence is plural. {All of the aces were gone from the deck.} All refers to the noun aces, which is plural. {Most of the tomatoes were ruined by the hail.} Most refers to the noun tomatoes, which is plural.
