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Cell Biology: Structure, Function, and Processes, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Biology

Virginia State University (VSU)Biology

An overview of cell biology, covering topics such as cell structure, macromolecules, and cellular processes. It discusses the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, the functions of various cell organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria, and key processes such as cellular respiration and photosynthesis. The document also touches on cell division, including mitosis and meiosis, and the basics of cell theory. It is a useful resource for understanding the fundamental aspects of cell biology. Useful for students who want to learn about cell biology. It is a good resource for students who are taking a biology class. It is also a good resource for students who are interested in learning more about cell biology. A good resource for students who are taking a biology class. It is also a good resource for students who are interested in learning more about cell biology.

Typology: Study Guides, Projects, Research

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Hesi A2/Biology Study Guide
1. Five Kingdom Classification System:
Kingdom Phylum/division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup
2. The five kingdoms are: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
3. The Monera Kingdom (Prokaryotes): includes about 10,000 known species
of prokaryotes such as bacteria and cyanobacteria. Members of this kingdom
can be unicellular organisms or colonies.
4. Protista Kingdom: unicellular, protozoans and unicellular and multi
cellular al- gae.
5. Fungi Kingdom: eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic decomposers
with cell walls made of chitin
6. Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
7. Human Classification: Domain:
Eukarya Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: Sapiens
8. binomial nomenclature: Classification system in which each species is
assigned a two-part scientific name
9. Species: A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce
fertile off- spring.
10. Natural selection: A process in which individuals that have certain
inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other
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Hesi A2/Biology Study Guide

  1. Five Kingdom Classification System: Kingdom Phylum/division Class Order Family Genus Species King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup
  2. The five kingdoms are: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
  3. The Monera Kingdom (Prokaryotes): includes about 10,000 known species of prokaryotes such as bacteria and cyanobacteria. Members of this kingdom can be unicellular organisms or colonies.
  4. Protista Kingdom: unicellular, protozoans and unicellular and multi cellular al- gae.
  5. Fungi Kingdom: eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic decomposers with cell walls made of chitin
  6. Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
  7. Human Classification: Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: Sapiens
  8. binomial nomenclature: Classification system in which each species is assigned a two-part scientific name
  9. Species: A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile off- spring.
  10. Natural selection: A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other

individuals because of those traits.

  1. Darwin's Four Principles: 1. From generation to generation, there are various individuals within a species
  2. Genes determine variations
  3. More individuals are born than survive to maturation
  4. Specific genes enable an organism to better survive
  5. Gradualism: The theory that evolution occurs slowly but steadily
  6. punctuated equilibrium: Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change
  7. stasis: long periods of no change
  8. scientific knowledge: sum of all scientific inquiries for truths about the natural world
  9. scientific inquiry: The diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence they gather.
  10. Scientific Method: 1. Identifying a problem or posing a question
  11. Formulating a hypothesis or an educated guess
  12. Conducting experiments or tests that will provide a basis to solve the problem or answer the question.
  13. Observing the results of the test
  14. Drawing conclusions
  15. Important properties of water: high polarity hydrogen bonding cohesiveness adhesiveness high specific heat high latent heat high heat of vaporization
  1. The four basic organic macromolecules produced by anabolic reactions are: 1. carbohydrates (polysaccharides) 2 .nucleic acids
  2. proteins
  3. lipids
  4. nucleic acids: Nucleic acids are the biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essen- tial to all known forms of life. The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA. They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
  5. proteins: any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
  6. four basic building blocks involved in catabolic reactions: 1. monosaccha- rides (glucose)
  7. amino acids
  8. fatty acids (glycerol)
  9. nucleotides
  10. carbohydrates: are the primary source of energy and are responsible for pro- viding energy as they can be easily converted to glucose. it is the oxidation of carbohydrates that provides the cells with most of their energy. Glucose can be further broken down by respiration or fermentation by glycolysis. They are involved in the metabolic energy cycles of photosynthesis and respiration. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hyrdrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are broken down into sugars or glucose. The simple sugars can be grouped into monosaccharides and disaccharides.
  11. Monosaccharides: Single sugar molecules glucose, fructose, galactose
  1. amino acids: building blocks of proteins
  2. fatty acids and glycerol: Monomers or building blocks of lipids are.
  3. Nucleotides are composed of: pentose sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate group
  4. anabolic reaction: is one that builds larger and more complex molecules (macromolecules)

Amino acids are formed by the partial hydrolysis of protein which form an amide bond. This partial hydrolysis involves an amine group and a carboxylic acid group, an amine group a central carbon atom between them with an attached hydrogen and an attached R group which is different for different amino acids. It is the R group that determines the properties of the protein.

  1. polypeptides: polymers of amino acids
  2. condensation reaction: a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to produce water or another simple molecule
  3. hydrolysis reaction: A chemical reaction that breaks apart a larger molecule by adding a molecule of water
  4. peptide: Short chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
  5. amide bond: Between carboxylic acids and amines. Important peptide bonds that build proteins from amino acids.
  6. carboxylic acid group: A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group. The general formula of a carboxylic acid is R- COOH, with R referring to the rest of the molecule. Carboxylic acids occur widely and include the amino acids and acetic acid. Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha (±)carbon, bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom.
  7. central carbon atom: Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha (±)carbon, bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom.
  8. R group (side chain): part of amino acid that determines the molecule's phys- ical and chemical properties
  9. Enzymes: are proteins with a strong catalytic power. they greatly accelerate the speed at which specific reactions approach equilibrium. Although enzymes do not start chemical reactions that would not eventually occur by themselves, they do make these reactions happen faster and more often. Each type of enzyme deals with reactants also called substrates. Each enzyme is highly selective only interacting with substrates that are a match for it at an active site on the enzyme. This is the "key in the lock" analogy; a certain enzyme only fits with certain substrates. Even with a matching substrate though the fit is not always perfect.

source of every accelerants for cells. This allows for a tremendous increase in the number and rate of reactions in cells.

  1. Nucleic Acids: macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, car- bon, and phosphorus composed of nucleotides. Hydrolysis is a reaction in which water is broken down into hydrogen cations and hydroxide anions. This is part of the process by which nucleic acids are broken down by enzymes to produce shorter strings of RNA and DNA. Oligonucleotides are broken down into smaller sugar nitrogenous units called nu- cleosides. These can be digested by cells since the sugar is divided from the nitrogenous base. This in turn, leads to the formation of the five types of nitrogenous bases, sugars, and the preliminary substances involved in the synthesis of new RNA and DNA.
  2. catalytic: bringing about, causing, or producing some result
  3. Reactants: a substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction.
  4. Substrates: molecules of which enzymes acts upon, a given enzyme will only catalyze a to a single reaction or class of reactions with these substrates, known as enzyme specificity
  5. Nucleotides in DNA: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
  6. hydrolysis: the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.
  7. Oligonucleotides: segments of nucleic acid that are 50 nucleotides or less in length
  8. Nucleosides consist of: Pentose (sugar) Nitrogen-containing base
  9. Macromolecular Nucleic Acid Polymers: RNA and DNA -Formed from nucleotides. ~Which are monomeric units joined by phosphodiester bonds. -Cells require ATP to synthesize proteins from amino acids and replicate DNA. -Nitrogen Fixation: Used to synthesize nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins.

~Uses enzyme nitrogenase in the reduction of dinitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3)

  1. phosphodiester bond: a chemical bond of the kind joining successive sugar molecules in a polynucleotide.

cuoles, and nt cells have

  1. nucleus: The nucleus is a round structure that controls the activities of the cell and contains chromosomes. Both plant cells and animal cells have cell membranes, cytoplasm, va other structures. The main difference between the two is the that pla

hotosyntheti c nd stores it in n found in the f genes. cell wall made of cellulose that can handle high levels of pressure within the cell, which can occur when liquid enters a plant cell.

  1. chromosomes: a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protei nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form o
  2. chloroplasts: Plant cells have chloroplast that are used during the process of photosynthesis which is the conversion of sunlight into food. Chloroplasts are organelles that conduct photosynthesis, where the p pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, a the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen plant and algal cells.
  3. Vacuole: Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates plant cells usually have one large vacuole wheras animal cells can have many smaller ones. plant cells have a regular shape, while the shapes of animal cells can vary.
  4. Nucleus: This is a small structure that contains the chromosomes and regulates the DNA of a cell. The nucleus is the defining structure of eukaryotic cells, and all eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. The nucleus is responsible for the passing on of genetic trait between generations. The nucleus contains a nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin and ribosomes.
  5. chromosomes: A chromosome is a Deoxyribonucleic acid molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins which, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to prevent it from becoming an unmanageable tangle.
  6. chromatin: Chromatin is a complex of DNA, RNA, and protein found in eukary- otic cells.[1] Its primary function is packaging very long DNA

three levels of chromatin organization: DNA wraps around histone proteins, forming nucleosomes and the so-called "beads on a string" structure (euchromatin). Multiple histones wrap into a 30-nanometer fibre consisting of nucleosome arrays in their most compact form (heterochromatin).[a] Higher-level DNA supercoiling of the 30-nm fiber produces the metaphase chromo- some (during mitosis and meiosis).

  1. nucleolus: This structure contained within the nucleus consists of protein. It is small, round, does not have a membrane, is involved in protein synthesis, and synthesizes and stores RNA.
  2. nuclear envelope: This encloses the structures of the nucleus. It consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids.
  3. nuclear pores: these are involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
  4. nucleoplasm: This is the liquid within the nucleus and is similar to cytoplasm.
  5. ribosomes: ribosomes are involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. They are numerous, making up about one quarter of the cell. Some cells contain thousands of ribosomes. Some are mobile and some are embedded in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
  6. golgi complex: This is involved in synthesizing materials such as proteins that are transported out of the cell. It is located near the nucleus and consists of layers of membranes.
  7. vacuoles: These are sacs used for storage, digestion and waste removal. There is one large vacuole in plant cells. Animal cells have small, sometimes numerous vacuoles.
  8. vesicle: This is a small organelle within a cell. It has a membrane and performs varying functions, including moving materials within a cell.
  9. cytoskeleton: This consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell.
  10. microtubules: These are part of the cytoskeleton and help support the cell. They are made of protein.
  11. cytosol: This is the liquid material in the cell. It is mostly water, but also

contains some floating molecules

  1. cytoplasm: This is a general term that refers to cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus.
  2. cell membrane: (plasma membrane) This defines the cell by acting as a barrier. it helps keeps cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. It also determines what is allowed to enter and exit the cell.

in order to perform a specific function, as in the case of a liver cell, a blood cell, or a neuron.

  1. Cell cycle and growth regulation: the process whereby the cell gets ready to reproduce and reproduces
  2. inner membrane of mitochondria: encloses the matrix, which contains the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.
  1. Cristae: Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
  2. aerobic respiration: occurs in the mitochondria
  3. Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: The main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and prokaryotic cells do not. Eukaryotic cells are considered more complex, while prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler. Eukarytic cells have membrane- bound organelles that perform various functions and contribute to the complexity of these types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do no contain membrane bound organelles, IN prokaryotic cells, the genetic material (DNA) is not contained within a membrane bound nucleus. Instead, it aggregates in the cytoplasm in a nucleoid. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is mostly con- tained in chromosomes in the nucleus, although there is some DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Prokaryotc cells usually divide by binary fission and are haploid. Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis and are diploid. Prokaryotic structures include plasmids, ribosomes, cytoplasm, a cyto-skeleton, granules of nutritional substance, a plasma membrane, flagella and a few others. They are single celled organisms.
  4. Structures unique to animal cells: centrosome centriole lysosom e cilia flagella
  5. centrosome: This is comprised of the pair of centrioles located at the right angles to each other and surrounded by protein. The centrosome is involved in mitosis and the cell cycle.
  6. centriole: These are cylinder shaped structures near the nucleus that are involved in cellular division. Each cylinder consists of nine groups of three micro tubules. Centrioles occur in pairs.