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1 To visualize chromosomes, chromosomes must be: - Answer-extracted, stained with dyes and DNA probes Genetics - Answer-The study of inherited traits and their variation What notable event occurred in 1859? - Answer-Charles Darwin hypothesized pangenesis, and termed gemmules What was Darwin's provisional hypothesis of pangenesis? - Answer-Traits could be passed down through gemmules (small particles that traveled from every body part to the sexual organs where they were stored) According to Darwin, what was responsible for the transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring? - Answer-Gemmules What book did Charles Darwin write in 1859? - Answer-On the origin of species, or Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life True or false; Gregor Mendel's theories were immediately recognized in the world of science - Answer-false, Mendel's work was not recognized until the 20th century What two individuals have been credited for laying the foundation for formulating the theory of heredity? a.) Avery ET all and Miescher b.) Darwin and Morgan c.) Crick and Watson d.) Mendel and Darwin - Answer-d.) Darwin and Mendel Who developed the rules of inheritance in 1866? - Answer-Gregor Mendel
2 Rules of inheritance - Answer-Alleles of the same gene separate during gamete formation Alleles of different genes are inherited independently What did T. Hunt Morgan and his students study in 1911? - Answer-Fruit fly chromosomes-- determined that chromosomes carry genes What occurred in 1953 in the world of genetics? - Answer-The DNA double helix was determined Who determined the double helix structure of DNA - Answer-James Watson and Francis Crick What occurred in 1955 in the world of genetics? - Answer-Joe Hin Tijo defined 46 as the exact number of chromosomes in human cells Who discovered that there are precisely 46 chromosomes in the human cell? - Answer-Joe Hin Tijo What occurred in 1959 - Answer-Chromosome abnormalities were identified. Specifically, Down syndrome is caused by trisomy 21 Who discovered that Down syndrome is caused by trisomy 21? - Answer-J. Lejeune and his colleagues What occurred in 1966 that affected the world of genetics? - Answer-It was determined the genetic code that allows nucleic acids with their 4-letter alphabet to determine the order of 20 kinds of amino acids in proteins
Which of the following is false about classical genetics? a.) it can be coordinated with studies of the structure and behavior of chromosomes b.) It localizes genes to specific positions within chromosomes c.) It does not include transmission genetics nor does it study the nature of genetic material - Answer-c is false Chromosome mapping - Answer-Localizing genes to specific positions within chromosomes In classical genetic analysis, genes are studies by: - Answer-following the inheritance of traits in crosses between different strains of an organism Molecular genetics studies: - Answer-the replication, expression and mutation of genes at the molecular level Molecular genetics identifies: - Answer-Genes internal components, such as coding sequences, regulatory sequences, and non-coding sequences What is molecular genetics rooted in? - Answer-the study of DNA sequences and manipulation of DNA molecules Why is molecular genetics beneficial? - Answer-It gives us new ways to detect mutant allels and treat diseases In molecular genetic analysis, genes are studied by - Answer-isolating, sequencing, and manipulating DNA and by examining the products of gene expression True or false; individuals within a population always carry the same alleles of genes - Answer-false-- individuals may carry different alleles
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Population genetics - Answer-Based on analyzing allele frequencies in a population and determining whether these frequencies change over time What is the foundation for the study of biological evolution and inheritance of complex traits? - Answer-Population genetics How are genes studied in population genetic analysis? - Answer-assessing the variability among individuals in a group of organisms True or false; cows are an example of selective breeding in agriculture - Answer- true Sir Archibald Garrod published which book? - Answer-Inborn Errors of Metabolism Pharmacogenomics - Answer-the study of how genetic inheritance affects the body's response to drugs Genome or - Answer-whole exome What did Sir Archibald Garrod hypothesize? - Answer-metabolic abnormalities are caused by mutant alleles, and are inborn errors of metabolism Genetic counselors advise people about: - Answer-the inheritance of genetic diseases What scientist discovered Genetic Transformation in 1928? - Answer-Frederick Griffith
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The gene pool is the sum of: - Answer-alleles in a population
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How was the first animal gene cloned? - Answer-Researched fused a segment of DNA that contained a gene from Xenopus (African clawed frog) with DNA from E. coli, placed resulting DNA into an E. Coli Cell. The E. coli’s DNA then directed the production of the frog's protein! What happened in 1975 that affected the world of genetics? - Answer-Rapid DNA sequencing methods are produced What two separate groups developed rapid DNA sequencing methods? - Answer- Sanger and colleagues, and Maxam and Gilbert What DNA sequencing technique is commonly employed in the lab today? - Answer-Sanger and Colleagues What occurred in 1981 that affected the world of genetics? - Answer-Scientists successfully added inherited stable genes to mice and fruit flies What occurred in 1982 that affected the world of genetics? - Answer-GenBank Database was formed; Scientists submitted DNA sequence data to the National Institute of Health database In 1983, what happened in the world of genetics? - Answer-PCR was invented Why did PCR revolutionize genetics? - Answer-it gave the opportunity to amplify what data you could get from one cell; you only needed one cell, where before, you needed millions of cells. PCR - Answer-Used to amplify a specific segment of DNA, allowing researchers to quickly make billions of copies of a specific DNA segment. Allows for easier studying of a gene.
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What occurred in 1995 in the world of genetics? - Answer-Sequencing of Haemophilus Influenzae was completed What occurred in 1996 in the world of genetics? - Answer-The first mammal (Lamb Dolly) was cloned from adult mammary gland tissue Who cloned Dolly? - Answer-Ian Wilmut What happened in 2000 in the world of genetics? - Answer-A draft of the human genome was completed (every gene and sequence (3 billio bp) of human was known) What happened in 2003 in the world of genetics? - Answer-the genomes of 100 species of bacteria and archaea, and 10 species of eukaryotes were completely sequenced The era of molecular genetics, gene expression and regulation was through which decades? - Answer-1950s-60s In what decades was recombinant DNA technology developed, and DNA cloning began? - Answer-1970s-80s Genome - Answer-Collection of DNA that is characteristic of an organism Genomics - Answer-study of DNA sequences that make up a genome Genomics does NOT involve: a.) DNA sequencing Technology b.) Computer science c.) Robotics
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What are the two states of Streptococcus Pneumoniae? - Answer-T and R state Streptococcus S state - Answer-Bacteria is smooth and enclosed in a polysaccharide capsule Streptococcus T state - Answer-Bacteria is rough, there is no capsule Transformation - Answer-Conversion of one bacterial type into another (ex: T state --> S state) Who discovered the transforming principle in 1944? - Answer-Avery, Macleod and McCarty the transforming principle was discovered in what year? - Answer- 1944 Which of the following is false about Griffith's experiments? a.) Type R Streptococcus was used as a control group b.) Type R streptococcus was used as an experimental group c.) Heat-killed smooth Type-S bacteria were not virulent d.) Heat-killed smooth streptococcus contained a polysaccharide capsule - Answer- c.) is false-- they were virulent Which combo(s) would result in a dead mouse? a.) Type R alone b.) Type S (heat killed) c.) Type R + heat killed Type S d.) none of the above would result in a dead mouse - Answer-c.) This is the basis of genetic transformation
bacteria - Answer-true True or false; Type R transferred its killing trait to type S bacteria - Answer-false-- types bacteria transferred its killing trait to type R bacteria Which bacteria did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty work with? - Answer-Heat- treated type S streptococcus How did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty work with the Transforming Principle? - Answer-They treated lysed S bacteria with a protease and DNase, and determined that only by breaking apart the DNA, the mouse would live Would a protease be sufficient in protecting the mouse from heat-killed smooth virulent DNA? - Answer-no In Griffith's experiments, which Streptococcus combinations resulted in dead mice? - Answer-Smooth Virulent Bacteria, and Heat-killed Smooth virulent bacteria + Rough Nonvirulent bacteria What were the conclusions of Griffith's experiments? - Answer-1. Type R bacteria do not kill mice
- Type S bacteria kill mice
- Heat-killed type S bacteria no longer kill mice
- Type S bacteria transferred killing trait to type R bacteria How did they determine that Heat killed smooth virulent bacteria and rough nonvirulent bacteria underwent transformation? - Answer-After the mouse died, live type S bacteria was detected in the sample of the dead mouse, despite not being actually used. This was thought to be because Heat-Killed Smooth virulent bacteria transferred the S trait to the livinh R-type :)
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True or false; heat-killed type S bacteria no longer killed mice, unlike Type S
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c.) Hershey and Chase d.) Levene - Answer-c.) Griffith: Discovered bacterial transformation Avery et al: Determined DNA was the transforming principle Levene: Which bacterium did Hershey and Chase use to determine that protein does not transmit genetic information? - Answer-E. Coli What year did Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase discover that protein did not contain genetic material? - Answer- 1953 Describe the Hershey and Chase experiment - Answer-They infected E. Coli with virus with large protein head. They grew 2 separate batches of virus, one containing Sulfur (to detect amino acids, and thus proteins) and Phosphate (to detect nucleic acids, therefore DNA) After infecting the bacterium with the virus, they blended the complex, and sought to find which radioactive element infected the E. Coli. Because the virus is substantially smaller than the bacterium, it was separate easily during centrifusion. When the viral protein coat was radioactively labeled with sulfur: a.) The upper test tube was nonradioactive, and the lower test tube was radioactive b.) The upper test tube was radioactive, and the lower test tube was nonradioactive c.) The centrifuge tube was equally radioactively distributed d.) The sulfur dissociated - Answer-b.) This is because the protein does not infect the bacterium, and stays with the virus
a.) The upper test tube was nonradioactive, and the lower test tube was radioactive b.) The upper test tube was radioactive, and the lower test tube was nonradioactive c.) The centrifuge tube was equally radioactively distributed d.) The sulfur dissociated - Answer-a.) This is because the Virus distributed its genetic material into the bacterium, which is heavier Would you find the viral protein coat in the upper or lower portion of the tube? - Answer-upper, because the virus is very small What were the mediums of the viruses in the Hershey and Chase experiments? - Answer-35S and 32P What did the blender experiments show? - Answer-That virus transfers DNA< not protein, into the bacterial cell; thus DNA is the genetic material What nationality was Phoebus Levene? - Answer-Russian-American Who was responsible for revealing the distinction between RNA and DNA? - Answer-Phoebus Levene What year was DNA distinguished from RNA? - Answer- 1929 What is the main distinguishing factor that separates RNA from DNA? - Answer- RNA has a ribose, while DNA has deoxyribose What did Phoebus Levene discover? - Answer-RNA has ribose, DNA has deoxyribose, and that the 3 parts of a nucleotide are found in equal proportions. True or false; Phoebus Levene is responsible for discovering that a nucleotide is made up of a sugar, (ribse/deoxyribose), phosphate, and a base - Answer-true
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When the viral DNA was radioactively labeled with phosphate:
structure of DNA using Rosalind Franklin's X-ray photos, and determined that base pairs hold the DNA chains together When did Watson and crick deduce the structure of DNA? - Answer- 1953 According to crick, genetic material must carry out two jobs: - Answer-it must duplicate itself and control the development of the rest of the cell in a specific way True or false; Watson and crick performed experiments to come to their conclusions in 1953? - Answer-FALSE What were the 3 main conclusions that Watson and crick came to in 1953? - Answer-1. Nucleotides are linked in a chain through sugar-phosphate interactions
- DNA molecules are made of two chains of nucleotides wound around each other in a helix
- Base pairs (A=T and G=C) hold the chains together Give an example of complementary base pair - Answer-Adenine-thymine How many hydrogen bonds exist between C and G? - Answer- 3 How many hydrogen bonds exist between A and T? - Answer-two Sketch out two DNA nucleotides linked together - Answer- each nucleotide is composed of: - Answer-A deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base Adenine - Answer-
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What did Watson and Crick determine in 1953? - Answer-They deduced the
Thymine - Answer- Cytosine - Answer- Guanine - Answer- Polynucleotide chains are (orientation) relative to one another - Answer- Anti-parallel When two polynucleotide chains align, they form: - Answer-a double helix Antiparallelism - Answer-opposing orientation, head-to-toe configuration the head-to-toe conformation of the DNA double helix is derived from the structure of: - Answer-the sugar-phosphate backbone Gene - Answer-section of a DNA molecule Allele - Answer-variant of a gene What is a single building block of a gene? - Answer-nucleotide What does a gene specify? - Answer-the sequence of amino acids in a particular protein What size is naked DNA? - Answer- 2 nm What size is DNA in "beads on a string" formation? - Answer- 11 nm How many base pairs of DNA are wound around histones? - Answer- 146
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Are loops random? - Answer-No-- they gather genes that function together Chromosomes are composed of what two biomolecules? - Answer-DNA and protein Human somatic cells have pairs of chromosomes - Answer- 23 How many pairs of autosomes do human chromosomes have? - Answer- 22 pairs How many pairs of sex chromosomes do humans have? - Answer- 1 Female chromosomes - Answer-XX Male chromosome - Answer-XY Karyotype - Answer-A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape; complete set of chromosomes in an individual Central dogma of molecular biology - Answer-DNA-transcription-RNA- translation-protein True or false; DNA has all the information necessary to be transcribed and translated - Answer-true True or false; a large number of genes do not encode polypeptides - Answer-true What end-products are a large number of genes? - Answer-RNA molecules What are the four requirements of DNA? - Answer-1. Replicate-- otherwise, info would not be passed and repeated
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- Store info
- Express info
- Allow variation by mutations Reverse transcription - Answer-going from transcript (RNA) to Gene (DNA) Which researchers came up with the semiconservative replication model? - Answer-Watson and Crick What allows DNA strands to serve as templates? - Answer-Arrangement and nature of nitrogenous bases Semiconservative replication - Answer-Method of DNA replication in which parental strands separate, act as templates, and produce molecules of DNA with one parental DNA strand and one new DNA strand True or false; complementarity of DNA strands allows each strand to serve as template for synthesis of the other - Answer-true! Describe the 7 steps of DNA replication - Answer-1. Helicase binds to the origin and separates strands of DNA
- binding proteins keeps strands apart
- primase makes a short stretch of RNA on the DNA template
- DNA polymerase adds DNA nucleotides to RNA primer
- DNA polymerase proofreading activity checks and replaces incorrect bases
- Continuous and discontinuous strand synthesis continues in the 5' to 3' direction
- Enzymes remove primers, ligase seals sugar-phosphate backbone Where does Helicase bind to? - Answer-Origin proteins keep DNA strands apart during replication - Answer-binding
