Indus River Valley and Ancient China: Geography, Civilizations, and Cultural Interactions, Study notes of Chinese

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Indus River Valley

Geography

The Indus Valley is located in the region known as South Asia, or the Indian subcontinent. The Indian subcontinent is a huge peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean. Towering, snow-covered mountain ranges mark the northern border of the subcontinent, including the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. These mountains limited contacts with other lands, leaving India’s culture to develop on its own for the most part. The Indian subcontinent is divided in to three major zones: the fertile Gangetic Plain in the north, the dry Deccan plateau , and the coastal plains on either side of the Deccan. The Gangetic Plain lies south of the Himalayas and is very fertile due to three rivers, the Indus , the Ganges , and the Brahmaputra. The Deccan is a plateau, or raised area of level land, in central India that is poor for farming and sparsely populated. The coastal plains are made fertile by rivers and seasonal rains, and are also populated by people that use the seas for fishing and trade.

City-States of the Indus River Valley

About 2600 B.C., the earliest South Asian civilization emerged in the Indus River Valley. The Indus civilization flourished for about 700 years. Very little written records have been found by archaeologists, but hundreds of cities and small villages have been studied, including the Indus cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Mohenjo- Daro was laid out in an organized grid pattern , with long, wide main streets and large rectangular blocks. Most of its houses were built with baked clay bricks. At Harappa and other Indus sites, mud and unbaked bricks were also common building materials. In addition, Indus houses had complex plumbing systems , with baths, brains, and water chutes that led into sewers beneath the streets. The people of these city-states were mostly farmers, though merchants traded goods by ship as far as Mesopotamia. Archaeologists believe that the people of the Indus were polytheistic. They believed certain animals were sacred, which may have influenced later Indian cultures to venerate cattle.

Monsoons

A defining feature of life in the Indian subcontinent is the monsoons , or seasonal winds that bring hot, dry air in the winter and heavy rain in the summer. Each year, people welcome the rains that are desperately needed to water the crops. If the rains are late, famine and starvation may occur. However, if the rains are too heavy, rushing rivers can unleash deadly floods.

Indus Civilization Declines It is unclear how the city-states of the Indus River Valley came to an end, but by 1900 B.C., the quality of life in the

Indus Valley was declining. Art became cruder, the use of writing halted, and entire cities like Mohenjo-Daro were abandoned. Scholars suggest this could

have been due to a major flood, invasion, or an earthquake, but likely it was a combination of events that led to the downfall of this civilization.

The Aryans divided their society into ranked groups based on

occupation. This is called the Caste System.

Aryan Civilization & the Vedic Age

During the centuries between 2000 B.C. and 1500 B.C, waves of nomadic peoples migrated to the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia. These people blended with the local peoples and called themselves Aryans. Through acculturation, or the blending of two or more cultures, the Aryans combined the cultural traditions of the nomads with those of earlier Indian peoples. Most of what we know about them comes from the Vedas , a collection of hymns chants, ritual instructions, and other religious teachings. Therefore, the time period from 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. is called the Vedic Age. Gradually, the Aryans gave up their nomadic ways and settled into villages to cultivate crops and breed cattle.

Literature in Aryan India

The early written language in India, Sanskrit , was used by priests during the Vedic age, but was also used in literary texts. The Aryans maintained a strong oral tradition of storytelling as well. They continued to memorize and recite ancient hymns, as well as two long epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.

The Mahabharata is India’s greatest epic. Through its nearly 100, verses, we hear echoes of the battles that rival Aryan tribes fought to gain control of the Ganges region. One episode, a lengthy poem known as the Bhagavad-Gita , reflects important Indian religious beliefs about the immortality of the soul and the value of performing one’s duty.

The Ramayana recounts the fantastic deeds of a daring hero and rescue of his beautiful bride. These epics evolved over thousands of years as priests added new morals to the tales to teach different lessons. They pointed to virtue, loyalty, and obedience in characters as models for men and women to follow.

Asoka’s Edicts “All men are my children. Just as I seek the

welfare and happiness of my own children in this world and the next, I seek the same things for all men.”

“Whatever good deeds I have done the people have imitated, and they have followed them as a model. In doing so, they have progressed and will progress in obedience to parents and teachers, in respect for elders, in courtesy to priests and ascetics, to the poor and distressed, and even to slaves and servants.”

Maurya Empire

In 321 B.C., Chandragupta Maurya forged the first Indian empire. He first gained power in the Ganges valley, and then went on to conquer northern India. His son and grandson later pushed south, adding much of the Deccan plateau to their empire. From 321 B.C. to 185 B.C., the Maurya dynasty ruled over a vast empire. Chandragupta maintained order through a well-organized bureaucracy. Royal officials supervised the building of roads and harbors to benefit trade. Chandragupta’s ruled was effective, but very harsh.

Asoka the Great

The most honored Maurya emperor was Chandragupta’s grandson, Asoka. A few years after becoming emperor in 268 B.C., Asoka fought a long, bloody war to conquer part of India. As a result of the violence, Asoka turned his back on further conquests and converted to Buddhism, rejected violence, and resolved to rule by moral example. He sent missionaries to spread Buddhism across India , which paved the way for the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia. He also preached tolerance for other religions. Asoka had stone pillars set up across India, offering moral advice and promising a just government. He built hospitals and Buddhist shrines, and roads for transportation. Asoka’s rule brought peace and prosperity and helped united his empire. As a result, today he is known as Asoka the Great.

The Maurya Empire

Gupta art, Ajanta Caves

Gupta Empire

Although many kingdoms flourished in the Deccan region of India, the most powerful states rose to its north. About 500 years after the Mauryas, the Gupta dynasty again united much of India. Gupta emperors organized a strong central government that promoted peace and prosperity. Under the Guptas, who ruled from A.D. 320 to about 540, India enjoyed a golden age , or period of great cultural achievement. Trade and farming flourished across the Gupta Empire. Farmers harvested crops of wheat, rice, and sugar cane. In cities, artisans produced cotton cloth, pottery, and metalware for local markets and for export to East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. The prosperity of Gupta India contributed to a flowering in the arts and learning. During Gupta times, many fine writers added to the rich heritage of Indian literature. They collected and recorded fables and folk tales in the Sanskrit language. In time, Indian fables were carried west to Persia, Egypt, and Greece.

The Gupta Empire

Math and Science

Indian advances in mathematics had a wide impact on the rest of the world. Gupta mathematicians devised the system of writing numbers we use today. However, these numerals are now called “Arabic” numerals because Arabs carried them from India to the Middle East and Europe. Indian mathematicians also originated the concept of zero and developed the decimal system of numbers based on ten digits, which we still use today.

By Gupta times, Indian physicians were using herbs and other remedies to treat illness. Surgeons were skilled in setting bones and in simple surgery to repair injuries. Doctors may have even developed vaccines 1,000 years before they appeared in Europe.

The Gupta Empire Decline

Eventually, Gupta India declined under the pressure of weak rulers, civil war, and foreign invaders. From central Asia came the White Huns, a nomadic people who overran the weakened Gupta Empire, destroying its cities and trade. Once again, India split into many kingdoms. It would see no other great empire like those of the Mauryas or Guptas for almost 1,000 years.

Art and Architecture

Gupta artists may be best known for the magnificent sculpture that they carved on stone temples for the rajahs who sponsored an immense flowering the arts. Such buildings were covered with carving of mostly religious subjects. In addition, the golden age of the Gupta dynasty encompassed other arts, including painting, music, dance, and literature. The Gupta arts influenced artistic styles in later Indian societies as well as in many other parts of Asia.

Ancient China

Huang He and Yangtze Rivers The Chinese heartland lay along the east coast and the valleys of the Huang He , or Yellow River , and the

Chang , or Yangtze River. Chinese history began in the Huang River valley, where Neolithic people learned to farm. As in other places, the need to control the flow of the river through large water projects probably led to the rise of a strong central government and the founding of what is sometimes called the Yellow River civilization. The Huang River got its name from its loess , or yellow soil. Long ago, the Huang River also earned the nickname “River of Sorrows” due to devastating flooding throughout history that has destroyed farmland and caused mass starvation.

China’s Geography and the “Middle Kingdom” Long distances and physical barriers separated

China from Egypt, the Middle East, and India. This isolation contributed to the Chinese belief that China was the center of the earth and the sole source of civilization. These beliefs in turn led the ancient Chinese to call their land the “Middle Kingdom.” To the west and southwest of China, deserts and high mountain ranges – the Tian Shan and the Himalayas – blocked the easy movement of people. To the southeast, rainforests divided China from Southeast Asia. To the north the Gobi desert hindered travel and to the east lay the Pacific Ocean. Despite these barriers, the Chinese traded with neighboring people and Chinese goods eventually reached the Middle East and beyond.

Shang Dynasty About 1766

B.C., the first Chinese dynasty arose in a corner of northern China. This dynasty, the Shang , would dominate the region until about 1122 B.C. Shang kings controlled only a small area, while loyal princes and local nobles governed most of the land. They were likely the heads of important clans , which are groups of families who claim a common ancestor. As in other early civilizations, the top level of Shang society included the royal family and a class of noble warriors. Shang warriors used leather armor, bronze weapons, and horse-drawn chariots. After this group was a class of artisans and merchants. The majority of people in Shang China were peasants.

Zhou Dynasty In 1122 B.C., the Zhou

people overthrew the Shang and set up the Zhou dynasty , which lasted until 256 B.C. To justify their rebellion against the Shang, the Zhou promoted the idea of the Mandate of Heaven , or the divine right to rule. The Chinese later expanded the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to explain the dynastic cycle , or the rise and fall of dynasties. As long as a dynasty provided good government, it enjoyed the mandate of heaven. If the rulers became weak or corrupt, the Chinese believed that heaven would withdraw its support and pave the way for a new dynasty. The Zhou rewarded their supporters by granting them control over different regions. Under the Zhou China developed feudalism , a system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and support to the ruler.

Achievements in Early China During the

Zhou period China’s economy grew. The development of ironworking led to surplus food, while coined money increased trade. The people of Shang and Zhou China are also known for numerous cultural achievements. The Chinese developed an accurate calendar and improved the art and technology of bronze-making. They learned how to make silk thread, which was turned into luxurious cloth and became China’s most valuable export. Written Chinese took shape at least 4,000 years ago. Some of the oldest examples are found on oracle bones , which were bones or shells from animals on which priests wrote prayers to gods and ancestors. Over time, a writing system evolved that includes tens of thousands of characters , or written symbols. Each character represents a whole word or idea. Scholars later turned writing into an elegant art form called calligraphy. Under the Zhou, the Chinese made the first books by binding thin strips of wood or bamboo together and drawing characters on its surface.

Chinese Belief Systems

By Shang times, the Chinese had developed complex religious beliefs, many of which continued to be practiced for thousands of years. The early Chinese prayed to many gods and spirits in nature. In addition, the Chinese called on the spirits of their ancestors to bring good fortune to the family. During the late Zhou period, new belief systems developed that would form the basis of China’s culture and government for centuries to come. Thinkers such as Confucius and Laozi put forward ideas on how to restore social order and maintain harmony with nature.

Confucius

Confucius was born in 551 B.C. to a noble, but poor family. Confucius hoped to become an advisor to a local ruler and for years he wandered from court to court talking to rulers about how to govern. He then turned to teaching. Confucius never wrote down his ideas. Rather, his students collected many of his sayings in the Analects. He developed a philosophy, or system of ideas, that was concerned with worldly goals, especially those of ensuring social order and good government.

Daoism

Laozi, or "Old Master," lived at the time of Confucius and founded a philosophy called Daoism. He is also credited with writing The Way of Virtue , which has had an incredible influence on Chinese life. Daoism focuses on harmony with nature. Laozi stressed that people should look beyond every day cares to focus on the Dao, or "the way" of the universe and rid themselves of the "unnatural" ways of society. Although scholars kept to Daoism's original teachings, the philosophy also evolved into a popular religion with gods and goddesses. In addition, people gradually blended Confucian and Daoist teaching. Confucianism showed them how to behave while Daoism influenced their view of the natural world.

Confucianism

Confucius taught five key relationships : ruler to subject, parent to child, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, and friend to friend. Confucius believed that, except for friendship, none of these relationships were equal. For example, he taught that older people were superior to younger people and men were superior to women. According to Confucius, everyone had duties and responsibilities. Filial piety , or respect for parents, was the most important of these duties. Confucius also believed that government leaders and officials should be well educated and should take the advice of wise, educated men.

In the centuries after Confucius died, his ideas influenced many aspects of Chinese life. Chinese rulers relied on Confucian ideas and chose Confucian scholars as officials. The Confucian emphasis on filial piety strengthened traditional customs such as reverence for ancestors. Confucianism also introduced a long-lasting Chinese belief that the universe reflected a delicate balance between two forces, yin and yang. To the Chinese, the well-being of the universe depended on maintaining a balance between these two forces. As Chinese civilization spread, hundreds of millions of people in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam accepted Confucian beliefs.

Another symbol of Shi Huangdi's immense power are the terracotta soldiers that were unearthed in 1974 in China's Xi'an province. This clay army was commissioned by Shi Huangdi to be built to protect him in the afterlife and includes thousands of statues, including soldiers, horses, and chariots.

The Qin Dynasty & Qin Shi Huangdi

In 221 B.C., Zheng , the leader of the Qin in western China, defeated all opposition and worked to unify China. He proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi , or "First Emperor," and ushered in China's classical age – a term historians use when civilization sets patterns in government, philosophy, religion, science, and the arts that serve as a framework for later cultures.

Shi Huangdi and Legalism

Shi Huangdi centralized power with the help of Legalist advisors and made Legalism the official policy of the Qin government. Legalism was a philosophy that argued order in society was achieved by passing strict laws and imposing harsh punishments for crimes. Shi Huangdi tortured, killed, or enslaved many of those who opposed his rule, approved the burning of books, and forced people to work on government projects. He punished those who shirked their duties. Shi Huangdi abolished feudalism , which required little allegiance from local rulers to the central government. Instead, he replaced the feudal states with military districts and appointed loyal officials to administer them. He forced nobles to live in his capital at Xianyang and distributed their land to peasants. To promote unity, Shi Huangdi standardized weights and measures and replaced the coins of the Zhou with Qin coins. He also had scholars create uniformity in Chinese writing and ordered the building of roads and canals to strengthen the transportation system.

The Great Wall of China

Shi Huangdi's most remarkable achievement was the Great Wall. He organized hundreds of thousands of laborers to build a wall of earth and stone that eventually rose almost 25 feet high and was topped with a wide brick road. Many workers died a result of working for years in harsh conditions. Over the centuries, the wall was extended and rebuilt many times. Eventually, it snaked thousands of miles across northern China. While it was not successful in keeping invaders out of China, it demonstrated the Chinese emperors' ability to mobilize China's vast resources and stood as a symbol of division between Chinese civilization and the nomadic tribes north of the wall.

The Han Dynasty

As Qin power collapsed in 206 B.C., Gao Zu defeated rival armies and founded the new Han dynasty. As emperor, he set about restoring order and justice to his empire by lowering taxes, easing Legalist policies, and appointing Confucian scholars as advisors. His policies created strong foundations for the Han dynasty, which last from 202 B.C. until A.D. 220. The most famous Han emperor, Wudi , brought China into a golden age. During his long reign from about 141 B.C. to 87 B.C., he strengthened the government and economy by expanding China's territory and improving canals and roads. He assigned Confucian scholars to help him administer the empire, and later Han emperors made Confucianism the official belief system of the state.

Silk Road

The emperor Wudi opened up a network of trade routes, called the Silk Road , which linked China and the West for centuries. Goods from India, Rome, and Asia came into China, and Chinese goods were exported to other parts of the world. Eventually, the Silk Road stretched for 4,000 miles, linking China to the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, and became a prime avenue for cultural diffusion.

Civil Service Exams

Han emperors adopted the idea that civil servants – officials in the government – should win their positions based on ability, rather than through family ties. Much later, in the 580s, the Sui dynasty set up a formal system of civil service exams which were given around China to find the most intelligent young men for government positions. The civil service exam remained in use until 1912. It put men trained in Confucian thought at every level of government and created a lasting system of values.

Achievements

The Han period was one of the golden ages of Chinese civilization. Han China made such tremendous advances in so many fields that the Chinese later called themselves "the people of Han." Han scientists wrote texts on chemistry, zoology, botany, and other subjects. Astronomers carefully observed and measured movements of the stars and planets, which enabled them to improve earlier calendars and invent better timekeeping devices. Chinese physicians diagnosed diseases, developed anesthetics, and experimented with herbal remedies and other drugs. Many doctors promoted the use of acupuncture , in which a doctor inserts needles into the skin at specific points to relieve pain. In its time, Han China was the most technologically advanced civilization in the world. Paper was made out of wood pulp for the first time, which is still used to manufacture paper today. The Chinese also pioneered advanced methods of shipbuilding. Other inventions included bronze and iron stirrups, fishing reels, wheelbarrows, and suspension bridges.

In A.D. 220, ambitious warlords overthrew the last Han emperor. After 400 years of unity, China broke up into several kingdoms. However, Chinese civilization continued to flourish, and in A.D. 581 a new dynasty, the Sui, would turn to Confucian scholars to revive the glory days of the Han.