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DOCUMEt~T RESUME ED 293 792 SP 030 007 AUTHOR Slate, John R.; Charlesworth, John R., Jr. TITLE (^) Applications.Information^ Processing^ Theory:^ Classroom PUB DATE [88] NOTE 17p. PUB TYPE Reports - Descriptive (141) EDRS PRICE MFOl/PCOl Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Advance Organizers; Attention Span; *Cognitive Processes; Cognitive Psychology; Elementary Secondary Education; *Instructional Improvement; *Learning Strategies; *Learning Theories; Memory; *Teaching Methods ABSTRACT The information processing model, a theoretical framework of how humans think, reason, and learn, views human cognitive functioning as analcgous to the operation of a computer. This paper uses the increased understanding of the information processing model to p4ovide teachers with suggestions for improving the teaching-learning process. Major theoretical concepts in cognitive psychology are explained and specific ways to utilize each concept are delineated. These concepts are (1) attention; (2) active learning; (3) meaningfulness; (4) organization; (5) advance organizers; (6) memory aids; (7) overlearning; and (8) automaticity. A number of suggestions are provided as to how teachers can incorporate more of the new knowledge gained from the information processing theory into their classrooms. In addition, the model provides a strong theoretical rationale supporting many traditional teaching technlques. (JD)
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Information Processing
Information Processing Theory:
Classroom Applications
John R. Slate
Arkansas State University
and
John R. Charlesworth, Jr.
Western Carolina University
Running Head: CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
"PERMISSIONMATERIAL TO REPRODUCEGRANTED THIS BY
TOINFORMATION THE EDUCATIONAL CENTER RESOURCES (ERIC)."
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Information Processing Theory: Classroom Applications During the past decade, cognitive psychologists have obtained an increased understanding of how humans think, reason, and learn. Much of this gain can be attributed to the continuing development of a theoretical framework known as the information processing model of human memory . This model, ascribed to by the maJority of American psychologists, views human cognitive functioning as analogous to the operation of a computer. Our purpose in writing this paper is to utilize the increased understanding of the information processing model to provide teachers with suggestions for improving the teaching-learning process. MaJor theoretical concepts of att~ntion, active learning, meaningfulness, organization, advance organizers, memory aids, overlearning, and automaticity are mentioned, briefly explained, and then applications of each concept are specified. Attention Information that is not attended to does not enter into the information processing system . Without a student's attention to the task at hand, learning cannot occur.
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Thus, attention is a necessary precursor for learning. In order to focus student atte~~ion on the learning tasks, both effective motivational and classroom management skills are necessary Use, but don't overuse, novelty when presenting material. A novel procedure becomes routine if used continually. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone. Help students focus on the most important information through voice inflection, pauses, writing on the board, or reviewing. Cue students to material they will be asked to reproduce later by asking them to summarize the important points in a presentation. Ask students questions in a random manner. This enhances the probability that all students will be attentive. When possible, eliminate any unnecessary distractions caused by lighting, noise, temperature, uncomfortable chairs, etc. (g) Make sure you have the students' attention prior to presenting information.
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6 graded or has a good probability of be1ng evaluated. An example would be asking ex~ questions ever term paper top1cs to Increase the cognitive effort on the paper. When v1ew1ng films or videotapes, students tend not to be mentally active unless they are cued to 1mportant issues and they know they will be tested on the material. Meaningfulness Meaningfulness is one of the most important elements of the information processing model. Research has indica~ed that when material is made meaningful, it is learned more rapidly and retained for longer periods of time than rote learning Show students how new information is related to other material they have already learned.
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Provide students with multiple examples for each new concept that illustrate both lnclusive and exclusive characteristics. Use outlines, diagrams, analogies, examples, and demonstrations to assist in making th~ relationships between new and old information clear. (d) Assist students ln forming associations between new material and their existing knowledge or experien~es. Provide assignments that require students to integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge. (f) For
appropriately matuLe students, have them generate their own
examples that require the forma~ion of new associations. Meaningfulness can be increased by illustr~ting practical applications of material, especially applications relevant to students' lives. Teachers can also assess meaningfulness by asking questions that require students to generalize material to new situations. Have students paraphrase or place Information into their own words. The common elements of these suggestions is that new material will be learned and retained better when learners are required to actively process information and develop meaningful associations than when they merely try to memorize it rotely. Learning of new material is facilitated when the learner has an
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networking, for example, students are taught to identifY ideas and their relationships . Specific types of relationships among Ideas are "part of, type of, leads to, analogous to, characteristic of, evidence foru . (f) Have students organize Information on their own, according to their ability to do so. Advance Organizers The use of advance organizers, one specific method of supplying students with organization and structure, has been found to aid ~tudent learning by helping students structure and understand the Incoming Information. Specifically, an advance organizer review of the literatuLe Indicates that advance organizers foster learning when (a) students lack prerequisite knowledge, the goal of instruction is transfer of learning, and (c) concrete analogies are used. Although the lack of time may prevent teachers from using written advance organizer9, the opportunity frequently exists for teachers to
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use advance organ1zers ln oral form prior to lectur1ng on new material , provide cues so that students can more easilY initiate and carry through the processes of learning and remembering 12
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mechanics involved. Cognitive processes such as reading, writing, spelllng, and mathematics can become automatic with repetition Provide students with meaningful practice opportunities for skills ln which automaticity is desired. Allow stuctents for whom certain skills are not automatic extra time to complete tasks. Individual Differences Because there are important developmental differences in the acquisition of learning strategies, such as the ability to rehearse, organize, and use memory aids, teachers must remember that not all students process information or learn in the same way Present material through a variety of activities and media. (b) Permit students to set and achieve learning goals at different difficulty levels . Allow stud6nts to use different methods and materials to reach learning goals. (d) Vary the time that students spend to achieve the same goal . Teachers should try to lessen the gap in individual differences
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between students by providing specific training ln metacogilitive and study skills . Surrmary A number of suggestions as to how teachers can incorporate more of the new knowledge gained from the information proce~s1ng theory into their classrooms are provided in this article. In addition, the model provides a strong theoretical rationale supporting many traditional teaching techniques. If these applications of information ~recessing theorY are utilized, the outcome should be enhanced learning for our students.
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Meacham, J. <1972>. The development of memory abilities in the
individual and society. Human Development, ~, 205-228. Paivio, A. <1971>. Imagerv and verbal proc~s. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Paivio, A., & Desrochers, A. <1981>. Mnemonic techniques in
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